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+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

Python's `str.__repr__()`

+

Sometimes software is written using whatever built-ins you find in your programming language of choice. +This is usually great! +However, it can happen that you depend on the precise semantics of those built-ins. +This can be a problem if those semantics become important to your software and you need to port it to another programming language. +This story is about Python and its str.__repr()__ function.

+

The piece of software I was helping port to OCaml was constructing a hash from the string representation of a tuple. +The gist of it was basically this:

+
def get_id(x):
+    id = (x.get_unique_string(), x.path, x.name)
+    return myhash(str(id))
+
+

In other words it's a Python tuple consisting of mostly strings but also a PosixPath object. +The way str() works is it calls the __str__() method on the argument objects (or otherwise repr(x)). +For Python tuples the __str__() method seems to print the result of repr() on each elemenet separated by a comma and a space and surrounded by parenthesis. +So good so far. +If we can precisely emulate repr() on strings and PosixPath it's easy. +In the case of PosixPath it's really just 'PosixPath('+repr(str(path))+')'; +so in that case it's down to repr() on strings - which is str.__repr__(),

+

There had been a previous attempt at this that would use OCaml's string escape functions and surround the string with single quotes ('). +This works for some cases, but not if the string has a double quote ("). +In that case OCaml would escape the double quote with a backslash (\") while python would not escape it. +So a regular expression substitution was added to replace the escape sequence with just a double quote. +This pattern of finding small differences between Python and OCaml escaping had been repeated, +and eventually I decided to take a more rigorous approach to it.

+

What is a string?

+

First of all, what is a string? In Python? And in OCaml? +In OCaml a string is just a sequence of bytes. +Any bytes, even NUL bytes. +There is no concept of unicode in OCaml strings.
+In Python there is the str type which is a sequence of Unicode code points[1]. +I can recommend reading Daniel Bünzli's minimal introduction to Unicode. +Already here there is a significant gap in semantics between Python and OCaml. +For many practical purposes we can get away with using the OCaml string type and treating it as a UTF-8 encoded Unicode string. +This is what I will do as in both the Python code and the OCaml code the data being read is a UTF-8 (or often only the US ASCII subset) encoded string.

+

What does a string literal look like?

+

OCaml

+

I will not dive too deep into the details of OCaml string literals, and focus mostly on how they are escaped by the language built-ins (String.escaped, Printf.printf "%S"). +Normal printable ASCII is printed as-is. +That is, letters, numbers and other symbols except for backslash and double quote. +There are the usual escape sequences \n, \t, \r, \" and \\. +Any byte value can be represented with decimal notation \032 or octal notation '\o040' or hexadecimal notation \x20. +The escape functions in OCaml has a preference for the decimal notation over the hexadecimal notation. +Finally I also want to mention the Unicode code point escape sequence \u{3bb} which represents the UTF-8 encoding of U+3BB. +While the escape functions do not use it, it will become handy later on. +Illegal escape sequences (escape sequences that are not recognized) will emit a warning but otherwise result in the escape sequence as-is. +It is common to compile OCaml programs with warnings-as-errors, however.

+

Python

+

Python has a number of different string literals and string-like literals. +They all use single quote or double quote to delimit the string (or string-like) literals. +There is a preference towards single quotes in str.__repr__(). +You can also triple the quotes if you like to write a string that uses a lot of both quote characters. +This format is not used by str.__repr__() so I will not cover it further, but you can read about it in the Python reference manual. +The string literal can optionally have a prefix character that modifies what type the string literal is and how its content is interpreted.

+

The r-prefixed strings are called raw strings. +That means backslash escape sequences are not interpreted. +In my experiments they seem to be quasi-interpreted, however! +The string r"\" is considered unterminated! +But r"\"" is fine as is interpreted as '\\"'[2]. +Why this is the case I have not found a good explanation for.

+

The b-prefixed strings are bytes literals. +This is close to OCaml strings.

+

Finally there are the unprefixed strings which are str literals. +These are the ones we are most interested in. +They use the usual escape \[ntr"] we know from OCaml as well as \'. +\032 is octal notation and \x20 is hexadecimal notation. +There is as far as I know no decimal notation. +The output of str.__repr__() uses the hexadecimal notation over the octal notation. +As Python strings are Unicode code point sequences we need more than two hexadecimal digits to be able to represent all valid "characters". +Thus there are the longer \u0032 and the longest \U00000032.

+

Intermezzo

+

While studying Python string literals I discovered several odd corners of the syntax and semantics besides the raw string quasi-escape sequence mentioned earlier. +One fact is that Python doesn't have a separate character or Unicode code point type. +Instead, a character is a one element string. +This leads to some interesting indexing shenanigans: "a"[0][0][0] == "a". +Furthermore, strings separated by spaces only are treated as one single concatenated string: "a" "b" "c" == "abc". +These two combined makes it possible to write this unusual snippet: "a" "b" "c"[0] == "a"! +For byte sequences, or b-prefixed strings, things are different. +Indexing a bytes object returns the integer value of that byte (or character):

+
>>> b"a"[0]
+97
+>>> b"a"[0][0]
+<stdin>:1: SyntaxWarning: 'int' object is not subscriptable; perhaps you missed a comma?
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+TypeError: 'int' object is not subscriptable
+
+

For strings \x32 can be said to be shorthand for "\u0032" (or "\u00000032"). +But for bytes "\x32" != "\u0032"! +Why is this?! +Well, bytes is a byte sequence and b"\u0032" is not interpreted as an escape sequence and is instead silently treated as b"\\u0032"! +Writing "\xff".encode() which encodes the string "\xff" to UTF-8 is not the same as b"\xff". +The bytes "\xff" consist of a single byte with decimal value 255, +and the Unicode wizards reading will know that the Unicode code point 255 (or U+FF) is encoded in two bytes in UTF-8.

+

Where is the Python code?

+

Finding the implementation of str.__repr__() turned out to not be so easy. +In the end I asked on the Internet and got a link to cpython's Objects/unicodeobject.c. +And holy cow! +That's some 160 lines of C code with two loops, a switch statement and I don't know how many chained and nested if statements! +Meanwhile the OCaml implementation is a much less daunting 52 lines of which about a fifth is a long comment. +It also has two loops which each contain one much more tame match expression (roughly a C switch statement). +In both cases they first loop over the string to compute the size of the output string. +The Python implementation also counts the number of double quotes and single quotes as well as the highest code point value. +The latter I'm not sure why they do, but my guess it's so they can choose an efficient internal representation. +Then the Python code decides what quote character to use with the following algorithm:
+Does the string contain single quotes but no double quotes? Then use double quotes. Otherwise use single quotes. +Then the output size estimate is adjusted with the number of backslashes to escape the quote character chosen and the two quotes surrounding the string.

+

Already here it's clear that a regular expression substitution is not enough by itself to fix OCaml escaping to be Python escaping. +My first step then was to implement the algorithm only for US ASCII. +This is simpler as we don't have to worry much about Unicode, and I could implement it relatively quickly. +The first 32 characters and the last US ASCII character (DEL or \x7f) are considered non-printable and must be escaped. +I then wrote some simple tests by hand. +Then I discovered the OCaml py library which provides bindings to Python from OCaml. +Great! This I can use to test my implementation against Python!

+

How about Unicode?

+

For the non-ascii characters (or code points rather) they are either considered printable or non-printable. +For now let's look at what that means for the output. +A printable character is copied as-is. +That is, there is no escaping done. +Non-printable characters must be escaped, and python wil use \xHH, \uHHHH or \UHHHHHHHH depending on how many hexadecimal digits are necessary to represent the code point. +That is, the latin-1 subset of ASCII (0x80-0xff) can be represented using \xHH and neither \u00HH nor \U000000HH will be used etc.

+

What is a printable Unicode character?

+

In the cpython function mentioned earlier they use the function Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE. +I had a local clone of the cpython git repository where I ran git grep Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE to find information about it. +In unicode.rst I found a documentation string for the function that describes it to return false if the character is nonprintable with the definition of nonprintable as the code point being in the categories "Other" or "Separator" in the Unicode character database with the exception of ASCII space (U+20 or ).

+

What are those "Other" and "Separator" categories? +Further searching for the function definition we find in Include/cpython/unicodeobject.h the definition. +Well, we find #define Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(ch) _PyUnicode_IsPrintable(ch). +On to git grep _PyUnicode_IsPrintable then. +That function is defined in Objects/unicodectype.c.

+
/* Returns 1 for Unicode characters to be hex-escaped when repr()ed,
+   0 otherwise.
+   All characters except those characters defined in the Unicode character
+   database as following categories are considered printable.
+      * Cc (Other, Control)
+      * Cf (Other, Format)
+      * Cs (Other, Surrogate)
+      * Co (Other, Private Use)
+      * Cn (Other, Not Assigned)
+      * Zl Separator, Line ('\u2028', LINE SEPARATOR)
+      * Zp Separator, Paragraph ('\u2029', PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR)
+      * Zs (Separator, Space) other than ASCII space('\x20').
+*/
+int _PyUnicode_IsPrintable(Py_UCS4 ch)
+{
+    const _PyUnicode_TypeRecord *ctype = gettyperecord(ch);
+
+    return (ctype->flags & PRINTABLE_MASK) != 0;
+}
+
+

Ok, now we're getting close to something. +Searching for PRINTABLE_MASK we find in Tools/unicode/makeunicodedata.py the following line of code:

+
if char == ord(" ") or category[0] not in ("C", "Z"):
+    flags |= PRINTABLE_MASK
+
+

So the algorithm is really if the character is a space character or if its Unicode general category doesn't start with a C or Z. +This can be implemented in OCaml using the uucp library as follows:

+
let py_unicode_isprintable uchar =
+  (* {[if char == ord(" ") or category[0] not in ("C", "Z"):
+           flags |= PRINTABLE_MASK]} *)
+  Uchar.equal uchar (Uchar.of_char ' ')
+  ||
+  let gc = Uucp.Gc.general_category uchar in
+  (* Not those categories starting with 'C' or 'Z' *)
+  match gc with
+  | `Cc | `Cf | `Cn | `Co | `Cs | `Zl | `Zp | `Zs -> false
+  | `Ll | `Lm | `Lo | `Lt | `Lu | `Mc | `Me | `Mn | `Nd | `Nl | `No | `Pc | `Pd
+  | `Pe | `Pf | `Pi | `Po | `Ps | `Sc | `Sk | `Sm | `So ->
+      true
+
+

After implementing unicode I expanded the tests to generate arbitrary OCaml strings and compare the results of calling my function and Python's str.__repr__() on the string. +Well, that didn't go quite well. +OCaml strings are just any byte sequence, and ocaml-py expects it to be a UTF-8 encoded string and fails on invalid UTF-8. +Then in qcheck you can "assume" a predicate which means if a predicate doesn't hold on the generated value then the test is skipped for that input. +So I implement a simple verification of UTF-8. +This is far from optimal because qcheck will generate a lot of invalid utf-8 strings.

+

The next test failure is some unassigned code point. +So I add to py_unicode_isprintable a check that the code point is assigned using Uucp.Age.age uchar <> `Unassigned.

+

Still, qcheck found a case I hadn't considered: U+61D. +My python version (Python 3.9.2 (default, Feb 28 2021, 17:03:44)) renders this as '\u061' while my OCaml function prints it as-is. +In other words my implementation considers it printable while python does not. +I try to enter this Unicode character in my terminal, but nothing shows up. +Then I look it up and its name is ARABIC END OF TEXT MARKER. +The general category according to uucp is `Po. +So this should be a printable character‽

+

After being stumped by this for a while I get the suspicion it may be dependent on the Python version. +I am still on Debian 11 and my Python version is far from being the latest and greatest. +I ask someone with a newer Python version to write '\u061d' in a python session. +And 'lo! It prints something that looks like ''! +Online I figure out how to get the unicode version compiled into Python:

+
>>> import unicodedata
+>>> unicodedata.unidata_version
+'13.0.0'
+
+

Aha! And with uucp we find that the unicode version that introduced U+61D to be 14.0:

+
# Uucp.Age.age (Uchar.of_int 0x61D);;
+- : Uucp.Age.t = `Version (14, 0)
+
+

My reaction is this is seriously some ungodly mess we are in. +Not only is the code that instigated this journey highly dependent on Python-specifics - it's also dependent on the specific version of unicode and thus the version of Python!

+

I modify our py_unicode_isprintable function to take an optional ?unicode_version argument and replace the "is this unassigned?" check with the following snippet:

+
let age = Uucp.Age.age uchar in
+(match (age, unicode_version) with
+| `Unassigned, _ -> false
+| `Version _, None -> true
+| `Version (major, minor), Some (major', minor') ->
+    major < major' || (major = major' && minor <= minor'))
+
+

Great! I modify the test suite to first detect the unicode version python uses and then pass that version to the OCaml function. +Now I can't find anymore failing test cases!

+

Epilogue

+

What can we learn from this? +It is easy to say in hindsight that a different representation should have been chosen. +However, arriving at this insight takes time. +The exact behavior of str.__repr__() is poorly documented. +Reaching my understanding of str.__repr__() took hours of research and reading the C implementation. +It often doesn't seem to be worth it to spend so much time on research for a small function. +Technical debt is a real thing and often hard to predict. +Below is the output of help(str.__repr__):

+
__repr__(self, /)
+    Return repr(self)
+
+

Language and (standard) library designers could consider whether the slightly nicer looking strings are worth the added complexity users eventually are going to rely on - inadvertently or not. +I do think strings and bytes in Python are a bit too complex. +It is not easy to get a language lawyer[3] level understanding. +In my opinion it is a mistake to not at least print a warning if there are illegal escape sequences - especially considering there are escape sequences that are valid in one string literal but not another.

+

Unfortunately it is often the case that to get a precise specification it is necessary to look at the implementation. +For testing your implementation hand-written tests are good. +Testing against the original implementation is great, and if combined with property-based testing or fuzzing you may find failing test cases you couldn't dream up! +I certainly didn't see it coming that the output depends on the Unicode version. +As is said, testing can only show the presence of bugs, but with a, in a sense, limited domain like this function you can get pretty close to showing absence of bugs.

+

I enjoyed working on this. +Sure, it was frustrating and at times I discovered some ungodly properties, but it's a great feeling to study and understand something at a deeper level. +It may be the last time I need to understand Python's str.__repr__() this well, but if I do I now have the OCaml code and this blog post to reread.

+

If you are curious to read the resulting code you may find it on github at github.com/reynir/python-str-repr. +I have documented the code to make it more approachable and maintainable by others. +Hopefully it is not something that you need, but in case it is useful to you it is licensed under a permissive license.

+

If you have a project in OCaml or want to port something to OCaml and would like help from me and my colleagues at Robur please get in touch with us and we will figure something out.

+
    +
  1. +

    There is as well the bytes type which is a byte sequence like OCaml's string. +The Python code in question is using str however.

    +↩︎︎
  2. +

    Note I use single quotes for the output. This is what Python would do. It would be equivalent to "\\\"".

    +↩︎︎
  3. +

    A person, usually an experienced or senior software engineer, who is intimately familiar with many or most of the numerous restrictions and features (both useful and esoteric) applicable to one or more computer programming languages. A language lawyer is distinguished by the ability to show you the five sentences scattered through a 200-plus-page manual that together imply the answer to your question “if only you had thought to look there”.

    +↩︎︎
+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/2024-08-21-OpenVPN-and-MirageVPN.html b/articles/2024-08-21-OpenVPN-and-MirageVPN.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0683731 --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/2024-08-21-OpenVPN-and-MirageVPN.html @@ -0,0 +1,237 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogMirageVPN and OpenVPN + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

MirageVPN and OpenVPN

+

At Robur we have been busy at work implementing our OpenVPN™-compatible MirageVPN software. +Recently we have implemented the server side. +In order to implement this side of the protocol I studied parts of the OpenVPN™ source code and performed experiments to understand what the implementation does at the protocol level. +Studying the OpenVPN™ implementation has lead me to discover two security issues: CVE-2024-28882 and CVE-2024-5594. +In this article I will talk about the relevant parts of the protocol, and describe the security issues in detail.

+

A VPN establishes a secure tunnel in which (usually) IP packets are sent. +The OpenVPN protocol establishes a TLS tunnel[1] with which key material and configuration options are negotiated. +Once established the TLS tunnel is used to exchange so-called control channel messages. +They are NUL-terminated (well, more on that later) text messages sent in a single TLS record frame (mostly, more on that later).

+

I will describe two (groups) of control channel messages (and a bonus control channel message):

+
    +
  • EXIT, RESTART, and HALT
    • +
  • PUSH_REQUEST / PUSH_REPLY
    • +
  • (AUTH_FAILED)
    • +
+

The EXIT, RESTART, and HALT messages share similarity. +They are all three used to signal to the client that it should disconnect[2] from the server. +HALT tells the client to disconnect and suggests the client should terminate. +RESTART also tells the client to disconnect and suggests the client can reconnect either to the same server or the next server if multiple are configured depending on flags in the message. +EXIT tells the peer that it is exiting and the peer should disconnect. +The last one can be sent by either the server or the client and is useful when the underlying transport is UDP. +It informs the peer that the sender is exiting and will (soon) not be receiving and ACK'ing messages; for UDP the peer would otherwise (re)send messages until a timeout.

+

Because the underlying transport can either be TCP or UDP the sender may have no guarantees that the message arrives. +OpenVPN's control channel implements a reliable layer with ACKs and retransmissions to work around that. +To accomodate this OpenVPN™ will wait five seconds before disconnecting to allow for retransmission of the exit message.

+

The bug

+

While I was working on implementing more control channel message types I modified a client application that connects to a server and sends pings over the tunnel - instead of ICMPv4 echo requests I modified it to send the EXIT control channel message once a second. +In the server logs I saw that the server successfully received the EXIT message! +But nothing else happened. +The server just kept receiving EXIT messages but for some reason it never disconnected the client.

+

Curious about this behavior I dived into the OpenVPN™ source code and found that on each EXIT message it (re)schedules an exit (disconnect) timer! That is, every time the server receives an EXIT message it'll go "OK! I'll shut down this connection in five seconds" forgetting it promised to do so earlier, too.

+

Implications

+

At first this seemed like a relatively benign bug. +What's the worst that could happen if a client says "let's stop in five second! No, five seconds from now! No, five seconds from now!" etc? +Well, it turns out the same timer is used when the server sends an exit message. +Ok, so what? +The client can hold open a resource it was authorized to use longer. +So we have a somewhat boring potential denial of service attack.

+

Then I learned more about the management interface. +The management interface is a text protocol to communicate with the OpenVPN server (or client) and query for information or send commands. +One command is the client-kill command. +The documentation says to use this command to "[i]mmediately kill a client instance[...]". +In practice it sends an exit message to the client (either a custom one or the default RESTART). +I learnt that it shares code paths with the exit control messages to schedule an exit (disconnect)[3]. +That is, client-kill schedules the same five second timer.

+

Thus a malicious client can, instead of exiting on receiving an exit or RESTART message, send back repeatedly EXIT to the server to reset the five second timer. +This way the client can indefinitely delay the exit/disconnect assuming sufficiently stable and responsive network. +This is suddenly not so good. +The application using the management interface might be enforcing a security policy which we can now circumvent! +The client might be a former employee in a company, and the security team might want to revoke access to the internal network for the former employee, and in that process uses client-kill to kick off all of his connecting clients. +The former employee, if prepared, can circumvent this by sending back EXIT messages repeatedly and thus keep unauthorized access. +Or a commercial VPN service may try to enforce a data transfer limit with the same mechanism which is then rather easily circumvented by sending EXIT messages.

+

Does anyone use the management interface in this way? +I don't know. +If you do or are aware of software that enforces policies this way please do reach out to me. +It would be interesting to hear and discuss. +The OpenVPN security@ mailing list took it seriously enough to assign it CVE-2024-28882.

+

OpenVPN configuration language

+

Next up we have PUSH_REQUEST / PUSH_REPLY. +As the names suggest it's a request/response protocol. +It is used to communicate configuration options from the server to the client. +These options include routes, ip address configuration, negotiated cryptographic algorithms. +The client signals it would like to receive configuration options from the server by sending the PUSH_REQUEST control channel message[4]. +The server then sends a PUSH_REPLY message.

+

The format of a PUSH_REPLY message is PUSH_REPLY, followed by a comma separated list of OpenVPN configuration directives terminated by a NUL byte as in other control channel messages. +Note that this means pushed configuration directives cannot contain commas.

+

When implementing the push server configuration directive, which tells the server to send the parameter of push as a configuration option to the client in the PUSH_REPLY, I studied how exactly OpenVPN™ parses configuration options. +I learned some quirks of the configuration language which I find surprising and somewhat hard to implement. +I will not cover all corners of the configuration language.

+

In some sense you could say the configuration language of OpenVPN™ is line based. +At least, the first step to parsing configuration directives as OpenVPN 2.X does is to read one line at a time and parse it as one configuration directive[5]. +A line is whatever fgets() says it is - this includes the newline if not at the end of the file[6]. +This is how it is for configuration files. +However, if it is a PUSH_REPLY a "line" is the text string up to a comma or the end of file (or, importantly, a NUL byte). +This "line" tokenization is done by repeatedly calling OpenVPN™'s buf_parse(buf, ',', line, sizeof(line)) function.

+
/* file: src/openvpn/buffer.c */
+bool
+buf_parse(struct buffer *buf, const int delim, char *line, const int size)
+{
+    bool eol = false;
+    int n = 0;
+    int c;
+
+    ASSERT(size > 0);
+
+    do
+    {
+        c = buf_read_u8(buf);
+        if (c < 0)
+        {
+            eol = true;
+        }
+        if (c <= 0 || c == delim)
+        {
+            c = 0;
+        }
+        if (n >= size)
+        {
+            break;
+        }
+        line[n++] = c;
+    }
+    while (c);
+
+    line[size-1] = '\0';
+    return !(eol && !strlen(line));
+}
+
+

buf_parse() takes a struct buffer* which is a pointer to a byte array with a offset and length field, a delimiter character (in our case ','), a destination buffer line and its length size. +It calls buf_read_u8() which returns the first character in the buffer and advances the offset and decrements the length, or returns -1 if the buffer is empty. +In essence, buf_parse() "reads" from the buffer and copies over to line until it encounters delim, a NUL byte or the end of the buffer. +In that case a NUL byte is written to line.

+

What is interesting is that a NUL byte is effectively considered a delimiter, too, and that it is consumed by buf_parse(). +Next, let's look at how incoming control channel messages are handled (modified for brevity):

+
/* file: src/openvpn/forward.c (before fix) */
+/*
+ * Handle incoming configuration
+ * messages on the control channel.
+ */
+static void
+check_incoming_control_channel(struct context *c, struct buffer buf)
+{
+    /* force null termination of message */
+    buf_null_terminate(&buf);
+
+    /* enforce character class restrictions */
+    string_mod(BSTR(&buf), CC_PRINT, CC_CRLF, 0);
+
+    if (buf_string_match_head_str(&buf, "AUTH_FAILED"))
+    {
+        receive_auth_failed(c, &buf);
+    }
+    else if (buf_string_match_head_str(&buf, "PUSH_"))
+    {
+        incoming_push_message(c, &buf);
+    }
+    /* SNIP */
+}
+
+

First, the buffer is ensured to be NUL terminated by replacing the last byte with a NUL byte. +This is already somewhat questionable as it could make an otherwise invalid message valid. +Next, character class restrictions are "enforced". +What this roughly does is removing non-printable characters and carriage returns and line feeds from the C string. +The macro BSTR() returns the underlying buffer behind the struct buffer with the offset added. +Notably, string_mod() works on (NUL terminated) C strings and not struct buffers. +As an example, the string (with the usual C escape sequences):

+
"PUSH_REPLY,line \nfeeds\n,are\n,removed\n\000"
+
+

becomes

+
"PUSH_REPLY,line feeds,are,removed\000ed\n\000"
+
+

As you can see, if interpreted as a C string we have removed the line feeds. +But what is this at the end? +It is the same last 4 bytes from the original string. +More generally, it is the last N bytes from the original string if the original string has N line feeds (or other disallowed characters).

+

The whole buffer is still passed to the push reply parsing. +Remember that the "line" parser will not only consume commas as the line delimiter, but also NUL bytes! +This means the configuration directives are parsed as lines:

+
"line feeds"
+"are"
+"removed"
+"ed\n"
+
+

With this technique we can now inject (almost; the exception is NUL) arbitrary bytes as configuration directive lines. +This is bad because the configuration directive is printed to the console if it doesn't parse. +As a proof of concept I sent a PUSH_REPLY with an embedded BEL character, and the OpenVPN™ client prints to console (abbreviated):

+
Unrecognized option or missing or extra parameter(s): ^G
+
+

The ^G is how the BEL character is printed in my terminal. +I was also able to hear an audible bell.

+

A more thorough explanation on how terminal escape sequences can be exploited can be found on G-Reasearch's blog.

+

The fix

+

The fix also is also a first step towards decoupling the control channel messaging from the TLS record frames. +First, the data is split on NUL bytes in order to get the control channel message(s), and then messages are rejected if they contain illegal characters. +This solves the vulnerability described previously.

+

Unfortunately, it turns out that especially for the AUTH_FAILED control channel message it is easy to create invalid messages: +If 2FA is implemented using the script mechanism sending custom messages they easily end with a newline asking the client to enter the verification code. +I believe in 2.6.12 the client tolerates trailing newline characters.

+

Conclusion

+

The first bug, the timer rescheduling bug, is at least 20 years old! +It hasn't always been exploitable, but the bug itself goes back as far as the git history does. +I haven't attempted further software archeology to find the exact time of introduction. +Either way, it's old and gone unnoticed for quite a while.

+

I think this shows that diversity in implementations is a great way to exercise corner cases, push forward (protocol) documentation efforts and get thorough code review by motivated peers. +This work was funded by the EU NGI Assure Fund through NLnet. +In my opinion, this shows that funding one open source project can have a positive impact on other open source projects, too.

+
    +
  1. +

    This is not always the case. It is possible to use static shared secret keys, but it is mostly considered deprecated.

    +↩︎︎
  2. +

    I say "disconnect" even when the underlying transport is the connection-less UDP.

    +↩︎︎
  3. +

    As the alert reader might have realized this is inaccurate. It does not kill the client "immediately" as it will wait five seconds after the exit message is sent before exiting. At best this will kill a cooperating client once it's received the kill message.

    +↩︎︎
  4. +

    There is another mechanism to request a PUSH_REPLY earlier with less roundtrips, but let's ignore that for now. The exact message is PUSH_REQUEST<NUL-BYTE> as messages need to be NUL-terminated.

    +↩︎︎
  5. +

    An exception being inline files which can span multiple lines. They vaguely resemble XML tags with an open <tag> and close </tag> each on their own line with the data in between. I doubt these are sent in PUSH_REPLYs, but I can't rule out without diving into the source code that it isn't possible to send inline files.

    +↩︎︎
  6. +

    This results in the quirk that it is possible to sort-of escape a newline in a configuration directive. But since the line splitting is done first it's not possible to continue the directive on the next line! I believe this is mostly useless, but it is a way to inject line feeds in configuration options without modifying the OpenVPN source code.

    +↩︎︎
+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/arguments.html b/articles/arguments.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b1ed2f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/arguments.html @@ -0,0 +1,479 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogRuntime arguments in MirageOS + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

Runtime arguments in MirageOS

+

TL;DR: Passing runtime arguments around is tricky, and prone to change every other month.

+

Motivation

+

Sometimes, as an unikernel developer and also as operator, it's nice to have +some runtime arguments passed to an unikernel. Now, if you're into OCaml, +command-line parsing - together with error messages, man page generation, ... - +can be done by the amazing cmdliner +package from Daniel Bünzli.

+

MirageOS uses cmdliner for command line argument passing. This also enabled +us from the early days to have nice man pages for unikernels (see +my-unikernel-binary --help). There are two kinds +of arguments: those at configuration time (mirage configure), such as the +target to compile for, and those at runtime - when the unikernel is executed.

+

In Mirage 4.8.1 and 4.8.0 (released October 2024) there have been some changes +to command-line arguments, which were motivated by 4.5.0 (released April 2024) +and user feedback.

+

First of all, our current way to pass a custom runtime argument to a unikernel +(unikernel.ml):

+
open Lwt.Infix
+open Cmdliner
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." [ "hello" ] in
+  let term = Arg.(value & opt string "Hello World!" doc) in
+  Mirage_runtime.register_arg term
+
+module Hello (Time : Mirage_time.S) = struct
+  let start _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+          Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" (hello ()));
+          Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () -> loop (n - 1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

We define the Cmdliner.Term.t +in line 6 (let term = ..) - which provides documentation ("How to say hello."), the option to +use (["hello"] - which is then translated to --hello=), that it is optional, +of type string (cmdliner allows you to convert the incoming strings to more +complex (or more narrow) data types, with decent error handling).

+

The defined argument is directly passed to Mirage_runtime.register_arg, +(in line 7) so our binding hello is of type unit -> string. +In line 14, the value of the runtime argument is used (hello ()) for printing +a log message.

+

The nice property is that it is all local in unikernel.ml, there are no other +parts involved. It is just a bunch of API calls. The downside is that hello () +should only be evaluated after the function start was called - since the +Mirage_runtime needs to parse and fill in the command line arguments. If you +call hello () earlier, you'll get an exception "Called too early. Please delay +this call to after the start function of the unikernel.". Also, since +Mirage_runtime needs to collect and evaluate the command line arguments, the +Mirage_runtime.register_arg may only be called at top-level, otherwise you'll +get another exception "The function register_arg was called to late. Please call +register_arg before the start function is executed (e.g. in a top-level binding).".

+

Another advantage is, having it all in unikernel.ml means adding and removing +arguments doesn't need another execution of mirage configure. Also, any +type can be used that the unikernel depends on - the config.ml is compiled only +with a small set of dependencies (mirage itself) - and we don't want to impose a +large dependency cone for mirage just because someone may like to use +X509.Key_type.t as argument type.

+

Earlier, before mirage 4.5.0, we had runtime and configure arguments mixed +together. And code was generated when mirage configure was executed to +deal with these arguments. The downsides included: we needed serialization for +all command-line arguments (at configure time you could fill the argument, which +was then serialized, and deserialized at runtime and used unless the argument +was provided explicitly), they had to appear in config.ml (which also means +changing any would need an execution of mirage configure), since they generated code +potential errors were in code that the developer didn't write (though we had +some __POS__ arguments to provide error locations in the developer code).

+

Related recent changes are:

+
    +
  • in mirage 4.8.1, the runtime arguments to configure the OCaml runtime system +(such as GC settings, randomization of hashtables, recording of backtraces) +are now provided using the cmdliner-stdlib +package.
    • +
  • in mirage 4.8.0, for git, dns-client, and happy-eyeballs devices the optional +arguments are generated by default - so they are always available and don't +need to be manually done by the unikernel developer.
    • +
+

Let's dive a bit deeper into the history.

+

History

+

In MirageOS, since the early stages (I'll go back to 2.7.0 (February 2016) where +functoria was introduced) used an embedded fork of cmdliner to handle command +line arguments.

+

Animated changes to the hello world unikernel

+

February 2016 (Mirage 2.7.0)

+

When looking into the MirageOS 2.x series, here's the code for our hello world +unikernel:

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Key.Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." ["hello"] in
+  Key.(create "hello" Arg.(opt string "Hello World!" doc))
+
+let main =
+  foreign
+    ~keys:[Key.abstract hello]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (console @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_console]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+
+module Hello (C: V1_LWT.CONSOLE) = struct
+  let start c =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        C.log c (Key_gen.hello ());
+        OS.Time.sleep 1.0 >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

As you can see, the cmdliner term was provided in config.ml, and in +unikernel.ml the expression Key_gen.hello () was used - Key_gen was +a module generated by the mirage configure invocation.

+

You can as well see that the term was wrapped in Key.create "hello" - where +this string was used as the identifier for the code generation.

+

As mentioned above, a change needed to be done in config.ml and a +mirage configure to take effect.

+

July 2016 (Mirage 2.9.1)

+

The OS.Time was functorized with a Time functor:

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Key.Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." ["hello"] in
+  Key.(create "hello" Arg.(opt string "Hello World!" doc))
+
+let main =
+  foreign
+    ~keys:[Key.abstract hello]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (console @-> time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_console $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+
+module Hello (C: V1_LWT.CONSOLE) (Time : V1_LWT.TIME) = struct
+  let start c _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        C.log c (Key_gen.hello ());
+        Time.sleep 1.0 >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

February 2017 (Mirage pre3)

+

The Time signature changed, now the sleep_ns function sleeps in nanoseconds. +This avoids floating point numbers at the core of MirageOS. The helper package +duration is used to avoid manual conversions.

+

Also, the console signature changed - and log is now inside the Lwt monad.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Key.Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." ["hello"] in
+  Key.(create "hello" Arg.(opt string "Hello World!" doc))
+
+let main =
+  foreign
+    ~keys:[Key.abstract hello]
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (console @-> time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_console $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+
+module Hello (C: V1_LWT.CONSOLE) (Time : V1_LWT.TIME) = struct
+  let start c _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        C.log c (Key_gen.hello ()) >>= fun () ->
+        Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

February 2017 (Mirage 3)

+

Another big change is that now console is not used anymore, but +logs.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Key.Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." ["hello"] in
+  Key.(create "hello" Arg.(opt string "Hello World!" doc))
+
+let main =
+  foreign
+    ~keys:[Key.abstract hello]
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+
+module Hello (Time : Mirage_time_lwt.S) = struct
+  let start _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" (Key_gen.hello ()));
+        Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

January 2020 (Mirage 3.7.0)

+

The _lwt is dropped from the interfaces (we used to have Mirage_time and +Mirage_time_lwt - where the latter was instantiating the former with concrete +types: type 'a io = Lwt.t and type buffer = Cstruct.t -- in a cleanup +session we dropped the _lwt interfaces and opam packages. The reasoning was +that when we'll get around to move to another IO system, we'll move everything +at once anyways. No need to have lwt and something else (async, or nowadays +miou or eio) in a single unikernel.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Key.Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." ["hello"] in
+  Key.(create "hello" Arg.(opt string "Hello World!" doc))
+
+let main =
+  foreign
+    ~keys:[Key.abstract hello]
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+
+module Hello (Time : Mirage_time.S) = struct
+  let start _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" (Key_gen.hello ()));
+        Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

October 2021 (Mirage 3.10)

+

Some renamings to fix warnings. Only config.ml changed.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Key.Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." ["hello"] in
+  Key.(create "hello" Arg.(opt string "Hello World!" doc))
+
+let main =
+  main
+    ~keys:[key hello]
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+
+module Hello (Time : Mirage_time.S) = struct
+  let start _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" (Key_gen.hello ()));
+        Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

June 2023 (Mirage 4.4)

+

The argument was moved to runtime.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Key.Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." ["hello"] in
+  Key.(create "hello" Arg.(opt ~stage:`Run string "Hello World!" doc))
+
+let main =
+  main
+    ~keys:[key hello]
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+
+module Hello (Time : Mirage_time.S) = struct
+  let start _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" (Key_gen.hello ());
+        Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

March 2024 (Mirage 4.5)

+

The runtime argument is in config.ml refering to the argument as string +("Unikernel.hello"), and being passed to the start function as argument.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let runtime_args = [ runtime_arg ~pos:__POS__ "Unikernel.hello" ]
+
+let main =
+  main
+    ~runtime_args
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+open Cmdliner
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." [ "hello" ] in
+  Arg.(value & opt string "Hello World!" doc)
+
+module Hello (Time : Mirage_time.S) = struct
+  let start _time hello =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" hello);
+        Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

October 2024 (Mirage 4.8)

+

Again, moved out of config.ml.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let main =
+  main
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    "Unikernel.Hello" (time @-> job)
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main $ default_time]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+open Cmdliner
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." [ "hello" ] in
+  Mirage_runtime.register_arg Arg.(value & opt string "Hello World!" doc)
+
+module Hello (Time : Mirage_time.S) = struct
+  let start _time =
+    let rec loop = function
+      | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+      | n ->
+        Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" (hello ()));
+        Time.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+        loop (n-1)
+    in
+    loop 4
+end
+
+

2024 (Not yet released)

+

This is the future with time defunctorized. Read more in the discussion. +To delay the start function, a dep of noop is introduced.

+

config.ml

+
open Mirage
+
+let main =
+  main
+    ~packages:[package "duration"]
+    ~dep:[dep noop]
+    "Unikernel" job
+
+let () = register "hello-key" [main]
+
+

and unikernel.ml

+
open Lwt.Infix
+open Cmdliner
+
+let hello =
+  let doc = Arg.info ~doc:"How to say hello." [ "hello" ] in
+  Mirage_runtime.register_arg Arg.(value & opt string "Hello World!" doc)
+
+let start () =
+  let rec loop = function
+    | 0 -> Lwt.return_unit
+    | n ->
+      Logs.info (fun f -> f "%s" (hello ()));
+      Mirage_timer.sleep_ns (Duration.of_sec 1) >>= fun () ->
+      loop (n-1)
+  in
+  loop 4
+
+

Conclusion

+

The history of hello world shows that over time we slowly improve the developer +experience, and removing the boilerplate needed to get MirageOS unikernels up +and running. This is work over a decade including lots of other (here invisible) +improvements to the mirage utility.

+

Our current goal is to minimize the code generated by mirage, since code +generation has lots of issues (e.g. error locations, naming, binary size). It +is a long journey. At the same time, we are working on improving the performance +of MirageOS unikernels, developing unikernels that are useful in the real +world (VPN endpoint, DNSmasq replacement, ...), and also simplifying the +deployment of MirageOS unikernels.

+

If you're interested in MirageOS and using it in your domain, don't hesitate +to reach out to us (via eMail: team@robur.coop) - we're keen to deploy MirageOS +and find more domains where it is useful. If you can spare a dime, we're a +registered non-profit in Germany - and can provide tax-deductable receipts for +donations (more information).

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/dnsvizor01.html b/articles/dnsvizor01.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a5cdafe --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/dnsvizor01.html @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogMeet DNSvizor: run your own DHCP and DNS MirageOS unikernel + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

Meet DNSvizor: run your own DHCP and DNS MirageOS unikernel

+

TL;DR: We got NGI0 Entrust (via NLnet) funding for developing +DNSvizor - a DNS resolver and +DHCP server. Please help us by sharing with us your dnsmasq +configuration, so we can +prioritize the configuration options to support.

+

Introduction

+

The dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) +is fundamental in today's Internet and local networks. It usually runs on your +router (or as a dedicated independent service) and automatically configures +computers that join your network (for example wireless laptops, smartphones) +with an IP address, routing information, a DNS resolver, etc. No manual +configuration is needed once your friends' smartphone got the password of your +wireless network \o/

+

The domain name system (DNS) +is responsible for translating domain names (such as "robur.coop", "nlnet.nl") +to IP addresses (such as 193.30.40.138 or 2a0f:7cc7:7cc7:7c40::138) - used by +computers to talk to each other. Humans can remember domain names instead of +memorizing IP addresses. Computers then use DNS to translate these domain names +to IP addresses to communicate with. DNS is a hierarchic, distributed, +faul-tolerant service.

+

These two protocols are fundamental to today's Internet: without them it would +be much harder for humans to use it.

+

DNSvizor

+

We at robur got funding (from +NGI0 Entrust via NLnet) to continue our work on +DNSvizor - a +MirageOS unikernel that provides DNS resolution and +DHCP service for a network. This is fully implemented in +OCaml.

+

Already at our MirageOS retreats we deployed +such unikernel, to test our DHCP implementation +and our DNS resolver - and found and +fixed issues on-site. At the retreats we have a very limited Internet uplink, +thus caching DNS queries and answers is great for reducing the load on the +uplink.

+

Thanks to the funding we received, we'll be able to work on improving the +performance, but also to finish our DNSSec implementation, provide DNS-over-TLS +and DNS-over-HTTPS services, and also a web interface. DNSvizor will use the +existing dnsmasq configuration +syntax, and provide lots of features from dnsmasq, and also provide features +such as block lists from pi-hole.

+

We are at a point where the basic unikernel (our MVP)

+
    +
  • providing DNS and DHCP services - is ready, and we provide +reproducible binary builds. Phew. This +means that the first step is done. The --dhcp-range from dnsmasq is already +being parsed.
    • +
+

We are now curious on concrete usages of dnsmasq and the configurations you use. +If you're interested in dnsvizor, please open an issue at our repository +with your dnsmasq configuration. This will help us to guide which parts of the configuration to prioritize.

+

Usages of DNSvizor

+

We have several use cases for DNSvizor:

+
    +
  • at your home router to provide DNS resolution and DHCP service, filtering ads,
    • +
  • in the datacenter auto-configuring your machine park,
    • +
  • when running your unikernel swarm to auto-configure them.
    • +
+

The first one is where pi-hole as well fits into, and where dnsmasq is used quite +a lot. The second one is also a domain where dnsmasq is used. The third one is +from our experience that lots of people struggle with deploying MirageOS +unikernels since they have to manually do IP configuration etc. We ourselves +also pass additional information to the unikernels, such as syslog host, +monitoring sink, X.509 certificates or host names, do some DNS provisioning, ...

+

With DNSvizor we will leverage the common configuration options of all +unikernels (reducing the need for boot arguments), and also go a bit further +and make deployment seamless (including adding hostnames to DNS, forwarding +from our reverse TLS proxy, etc.).

+

Conclusion

+

DNSvizor provides DNS resolution and +DHCP service for your network, and already exists :). +Please report issues you +encounter and questions you may have. Also, if you use dnsmasq, please +show us your configuration.

+

If you're interested in MirageOS and using it in your domain, don't hesitate +to reach out to us (via eMail: team@robur.coop) - we're keen to deploy MirageOS +and find more domains where it is useful. If you can +spare a dime, we're a registered non-profit in +Germany - and can provide tax-deductable receipts in Europe.

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/finances.html b/articles/finances.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6f75ade --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/finances.html @@ -0,0 +1,410 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogHow has robur financially been doing since 2018? + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

How has robur financially been doing since 2018?

+

Since the beginning, robur has been working on MirageOS unikernels and getting +them deployed. Due to our experience in hierarchical companies, we wanted to +create something different - a workplace without bosses and management. Instead, +we are a collective where everybody has a say on what we do, and who gets how +much money at the end of the month. This means nobody has to write report and +meet any goals - there's no KPI involved. We strive to be a bunch of people +working together nicely and projects that we own and want to bring forward. If +we discover lack of funding, we reach out to (potential) customers to fill our +cash register. Or reach out to people to donate money.

+

Since our mission is fulfilling and already complex - organising ourselves in a +hierarchy-free environment, including the payment, and work on software in a +niche market - we decided from the early days that bookeeping and invoicing +should not be part of our collective. Especially since we want to be free in +what kind of funding we accept - donations, commercial contracts, public +funding. In the books, robur is part of the non-profit company +Änderwerk in Germany - and friends of ours run that +company. They get a cut on each income we generate.

+

To be inclusive and enable everyone to participate in decisions, we are 100% +transparent in our books - every collective member has access to the financial +spreadsheets, contracts, etc. We use a needs-based payment model, so we talk +about the needs everyone has on a regular basis and adjust the salary, everyone +agreeing to all the numbers.

+

2018

+

We started operations in 2018. In late 2017, we got donations (in the form of +bitcoins) by friends who were convinced of our mission. This was 54,194.91 €. +So, in 2018 we started with that money, and tried to find a mission, and +generate income to sustain our salaries.

+

Also, already in 2017, we applied for funding from +Prototypefund on a CalDAV server, +and we received the grant in early 2018. This was another 48,500 €, paid to +individuals (due to reasons, Prototype fund can't cash out to the non-profit - +this put us into some struggle, since we needed some double bookkeeping and +individuals had to dig into health care etc.).

+

We also did in the second half of 2018 a security audit for +Least Authority +(invoicing 19,600 €).

+

And later in 2018 we started on what is now called NetHSM with an initial +design workshop (5,000 €).

+

And lastly, we started to work on a grant to implement TLS 1.3, +funded by Jane Street (via OCaml Labs Consulting). In 2018, we received 12,741.71 €

+

We applied at NLNet for improving the QubesOS firewall developed in MirageOS +(without success), tried to get the IT security prize in Germany (without +success), and to DIAL OSC (without success).

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ProjectAmount
Donation54,194.91
Prototypefund48,500.00
Least Authority19,600.00
TLS 1.312,741.71
Nitrokey5,000.00
Total140,036.62

2019

+

We were keen to finish the CalDAV implementation (and start a CardDAV +implementation), and received some financial support from Tarides for it +(15,000 €).

+

The TLS 1.3 work continued, we got in total 68,887.53 €.

+

We also applied to (and got funding from) Prototypefund, once with an OpenVPN-compatible +MirageOS unikernel, +and once with improving the QubesOS firewall developed as MirageOS unikernel. +This means again twice 48,500 €.

+

We also started the implementation work of NetHSM - which still included a lot +of design work - in total the contract was over 82,500 €. In 2019, we invoiced +Nitrokey in 2019 in total 40,500 €.

+

We also received a total of 516.48 € as donations from source unknown to us.

+

We also applied to NLnet with DNSvizor, and +got a grant, but due to buerocratic reasons they couldn't transfer the money to +our non-profit (which was involved with NLnet in some EU grants), and we didn't +get any money in the end.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ProjectAmount
CardDAV15,000.00
TLS 1.368,887.53
OpenVPN48,500.00
QubesOS48,500.00
Donation516.48
Nitrokey40,500.00
Total221,904.01

2020

+

In 2020, we agreed with OCaml Labs Consulting to work on maintenance of OCaml +packages in the MirageOS ecosystem. This was a contract where at the end of the +month, we reported on which PRs and issues we spent how much time. For us, this +was great to have the freedom to work on which OCaml packages we were keen to +get up to speed. In 2020, we received 45,000 € for this maintenance.

+

We finished the TLS 1.3 work (18,659.01 €)

+

We continued to work on the NetHSM project, and invoiced 55,500 €.

+

We received a total of 255 € in donations from sources unknown to us.

+

We applied at reset.tech again with DNSvizor, unfortunately without success.

+

We also applied at NGI pointer to work on reproducible +builds for MirageOS, and a web frontend. Here we got the grant of 200,000 €, +which we worked on in 2021 and 2022.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ProjectAmount
OCLC45,000.00
TLS 1.318,659.01
Nitrokey55,500.00
Donations255.00
Total119,414.01

2021

+

As outlined, we worked on reproducible builds of unikernels - rethinking the way +how a unikernel is configured: no more compiled-in secrets, but instead using +boot parameters. We setup the infrastructure for doing daily reproducible +builds, serving system packages via a package repository, and a +web frontend hosting the reproducible builds. +We received in total 120,000 € from NGI Pointer in 2021.

+

Our work on NetHSM continued, including the introduction of elliptic curves +in mirage-crypto (using fiat). The +invoices to Nitrokey summed up to 26,000 € in 2021.

+

We developed in a short timeframe two packages, u2f +and later webauthn for Skolem Labs based +on gift economy. This resulted in +donations of 18,976 €.

+

We agreed with OCSF to work on +conex, which we have not delivered yet +(lots of other things had to be cleared first: we did a security review of opam +(leading to a security advisory), +we got rid of extra-files +in the opam-repository, and we removed the weak hash md5 +from the opam-repository.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CustomerAmount
NGI Pointer120,000.00
Nitrokey26,000.00
Skolem18,976.00
Total164,976.00

2022

+

We finished our NGI pointer project, and received another 80,000 €.

+

We also did some minor maintenance for Nitrokey, and invoiced 4,500 €.

+

For Tarides, we started another maintaining MirageOS packages (and continuing +our TCP/IP stack), and invoiced in +total 22,500 €.

+

A grant application for bob was rejected, +but a grant application for MirageVPN +got accepted. Both at NLnet within the EU NGI project.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ProjectAmount
NGI Pointer80,000.00
Nitrokey4,500.00
Tarides22,500.00
Total107,000.00

2023

+

We finished the NetHSM project, and had a final invoice over 2,500 €.

+

We started a collaboration for semgrep, porting some of +their Python code to OCaml. We received in total 37,500 €.

+

We continued the MirageOS opam package maintenance and invoiced in total +89,250 € to Tarides.

+

A grant application on MirageVPN got +accepted (NGI Assure), and we received in total 12,000 € for our work on it. +This is a continuation of our 2019 work funded by Prototypefund.

+

We also wrote various funding applications, including one for +DNSvizor that was +accepted (NGI0 Entrust).

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CustomerAmount
Nitrokey2,500.00
semgrep37,500.00
Tarides89,250.00
MirageVPN12,000.00
Total141,250.00

2024

+

We're still in the middle of it, but so far we continued the Tarides maintenance +contract (54,937.50 €).

+

We also finished the MirageVPN work, and received another 45,000 €.

+

We had a contract with Semgrep again on porting Python code to OCaml and received 18,559.40 €.

+

We again worked on several successful funding applications, one on +PTT (NGI Zero Core), a continuation of the +NGI DAPSI project - +now realizing mailing lists with our SMTP stack.

+

We also got MTE (NGI Taler) accepted.

+

The below table is until end of September 2024.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ProjectAmount
Semgrep18,559.40
Tarides62,812.50
MirageVPN45,000.00
Total126,371.90

Total

+

In a single table, here's our income since robur started.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
YearAmount
2018140,036.62
2019221,904.01
2020119,414.01
2021164,976.00
2022107,000.00
2023141,250.00
2024126,371.90
Total1,020,952.54

Plot of above income table

+

As you can spot, it varies quite a bit. In some years we have fewer money +available than in other years.

+

Expenses

+

As mentioned, the non-profit company Änderwerk running +the bookkeeping and legal stuff (invoices, tax statements, contracts, etc.) gets +a cut on each income we produce. They are doing amazing work and are very +quick responding to our queries.

+

We spend most of our income on salary. Some money we spend on travel. We also +pay monthly for our server (plus some extra for hardware, and in June 2024 a +huge amount for trying to recover data from failed SSDs).

+

Conclusion

+

We have provided an overview of our income, we were three to five people working +at robur over the entire time. As written at the beginning, we use needs-based +payment. Our experience with this is great! It provides a lot of trust into each +other.

+

Our funding is diverse from multiple sources - donations, commercial work, +public funding. This was our initial goal, and we're very happy that it works +fine over the last five years.

+

Taking the numbers into account, we are not paying ourselves "industry standard" +rates - but we really love what we do - and sometimes we just take some time off. +We do work on various projects that we really really enjoy - but where (at the +moment) no funding is available for.

+

We are always happy to discuss how our collective operates. If you're +interested, please drop us a message.

+

Of course, if we receive donations, we use them wisely - mainly for working on +the currently not funded projects (bob, albatross, miou, mollymawk - to name a few). If you +can spare a dime or two, don't hesitate to donate. +Donations are tax-deductable in Germany (and should be in Europe) since we're a +registered non-profit.

+

If you're interested in MirageOS and using it in your domain, don't hesitate +to reach out to us (via eMail: team@robur.coop) so we can start to chat - we're keen to deploy MirageOS +and find more domains where it is useful.

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/gptar.html b/articles/gptar.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aeba524 --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/gptar.html @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogGPTar + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

GPTar

+

At Robur we developed a piece of software for mirroring or exposing an opam repository. +We have it deployed at opam.robur.coop, and you can use it as an alternative to opam.ocaml.org. +It is usually more up-to-date with the git opam-repository than opam.ocaml.org although in the past it suffered from occasional availability issues. +I can recommend reading Hannes' post about opam-mirror. +This article is about adding a partition table to the disk as used by opam-mirror. +For background I can recommend reading the previously linked subsection of the opam-mirror article.

+

The opam-mirror persistent storage scheme

+

Opam-mirror uses a single block device for its persistent storage. +On the block device it stores cached source code archives from the opam repository. +These are stored in a tar archive consisting of files whose file name is the sha256 checksum of the file contents. +Furthermore, at the end of the block device some space is allocated for dumping the cloned git state of the upstream (git) opam repository as well as caches storing maps from md5 and sha512 checksums respectively to the sha256 checksums. +The partitioning scheme is entirely decided by command line arguments. +In other words, there is no partition table on the disk image.

+

This scheme has the nice property that the contents of the tar archive can be inspected by regular tar utilities in the host system. +Due to the append-only nature of tar and in the presence of concurrent downloads a file written to the archive may be partial or corrupt. +Opam-mirror handles this by prepending a pending/ directory to partial downloads and to-delete/ directory for corrupt downloads. +If there are no files after the failed download in the tar archive the file can be removed without any issues. +Otherwise a delete would involve moving all subsequent files further back in the archive - which is too error prone to do robustly. +So using the tar utilities in the host we can inspect how much garbage has accumulated in the tar file system.

+

The big downside to this scheme is that since the disk partitioning is not stored on the disk the contents can easily become corrupt if the wrong offsets are passed on the command line. +Therefore I have for a long time been wanting to use an on-disk partition table. +The problem is both MBR and GPT (GUID Partition Table) store the table at the beginning of the disk. +If we write a partition table at the beginning it is suddenly not a valid tar archive anymore. +Of course, in Mirage we can just write and read the table at the end if we please, but then we lose the ability to inspect the partition table in the host system.

+

GPT header as tar file name

+

My first approach, which turned out to be a dead end, was when I realized that a GPT header consists of 92 bytes at the beginning followed by reserved space for the remainder of the LBA. +The reserved space should be all zeroes, but it seems no one bothers to enforce this. +What's more is that a tar header starts with the file name in the first 100 bytes. +This got me thinking we could embed a GPT header inside a tar header by using the GPT header as the tar header file name!

+

I started working on implementing this, but I quickly realized that 1) the tar header has a checksum, and 2) the gpt header has a checksum as well. +Having two checksums that cover each other is tricky. +Updating one checksum affects the other checksum. +So I started reading a paper written by Martin Stigge et al. about reversing CRC as the GPT header use CRC32 checksum. +I ended up writing something that I knew was incorrect.

+

Next, I realized the GPT header's checksum only covers the first 92 bytes - that is, the reserved space is not checksummed! +I find this and the fact that the reserved space should be all zeroes but no one checks odd about GPT. +This simplified things a lot as we don't have to reverse any checksums! +Then I implemented a test binary that produces a half megabyte disk image with a hybrid GPT and tar header followed by a tar archive with a file test.txt whose content is Hello, World!. +I had used the byte G as the link indicator. +In POSIX.1-1988 the link indicators A-Z are reserved for vendor specific extensions, and it seemed G was unused. +A mistake I made was to not update the tar header checksum - the ocaml-tar library doesn't support this link indicator value so I had manually updated the byte value in the serialized header but forgot to update the checksum. +This was easily remediated as the checksum is a simple sum of the bytes in the header. +The changes made are viewable on GitHub. +I also had to work around a bug in ocaml-tar. +GNU tar was successfully able to list the archive. +A quirk is that the archive will start with a dummy file GPTAR which consists of any remaining space in the first LBA if the sector size is greater than 512 bytes followed by the partition table.

+

Protective MBR

+

Unfortunately, neither fdisk nor parted recognized the GPT partition table. +I was able to successfully read the partition table using ocaml-gpt however. +This puzzled me. +Then I got a hunch: I had read about protective MBRs on the Wikipedia page on GPT. +I had always thought it was optional and not needed in a new system such as Mirage that doesn't have to care too much about legacy code and operating systems.

+

So I started comparing the layout of MBR and tar. +The V7 tar format only uses the first 257 bytes of the 512 byte block. +The V7 format is differentiated by the UStar, POSIX/pax and old GNU tar formats by not having the string ustar at byte offset 257[1]. +The master boot record format starts with the bootstrap code area. +In the classic format it is the first 446 bytes. +In the modern standard MBR format the first 446 bytes are mostly bootstrap code too with the exception of a handful bytes at offset 218 or so which are used for a timestamp or so. +This section overlaps with the tar V7 linked file name field. +In both formats these bytes can be zero without any issues, thankfully.

+

This is great! +This means we can put a tar header in the bootstrap code area of the MBR and have it be a valid tar header and MBR record at the same time. +The protective MBR has one partition of type 0xEE whose LBA starts at sector 1 and the number of LBAs should cover the whole disk, or be 0xFFFFFFFF (maximum representable number in unsigned 32 bit). +In practice this means we can get away with only touching byte offsets 446-453 and 510-511 for the protective MBR. +The MBR does not have a checksum which also makes things easier. +Using this I could create a disk image that parted and fdisk recognized as a GPT partitioned disk! +With the caveat that they both reported that the backup GPT header was corrupt. +I had just copied the primary GPT header to the end of the disk. +It turns out that the alternate, or backup, GPT header should have the current LBA and backup LBA fields swapped (and the header crc32 recomputed). +I updated the ocaml-gpt code so that it can marshal alternate GPT headers.

+

Finally we can produce GPT partitioned disks that can be inspected with tar utilities!

+
$ /usr/sbin/parted disk.img print
+WARNING: You are not superuser.  Watch out for permissions.
+Model:  (file)
+Disk /home/reynir/workspace/gptar/disk.img: 524kB
+Sector size (logical/physical): 512B/512B
+Partition Table: gpt
+Disk Flags: pmbr_boot
+
+Number  Start   End     Size   File system  Name              Flags
+ 1      17.4kB  19.5kB  2048B               Real tar archive  hidden
+
+
+
$ tar -tvf disk.img
+?r-------- 0/0           16896 1970-01-01 01:00 GPTAR unknown file type ‘G’
+-r-------- 0/0              14 1970-01-01 01:00 test.txt
+
+

The code is freely available on GitHub.

+

Future work

+

One thing that bothers me a bit is the dummy file GPTAR. +By using the G link indicator GNU tar will print a warning about the unknown file type G, +but it will still extract the dummy file when extracting the archive. +I have been thinking about what tar header I could put in the MBR so tar utilities will skip the partition table but not try to extract the dummy file. +Ideas I've had is to:

+
    +
  • Pretend it is a directory with a non-zero file size which is nonsense. +I'm unsure what tar utilities would do in that case. +I fear not all implementations will skip to the next header correctly as a non-zero directory is nonsense. +I may give it a try and check how GNU tar, FreeBSD tar and ocaml-tar react.
    • +
  • Say it is a PAX extended header and use a nonsense tag or attribute whose value covers the GPT header and partition table. +The problem is the PAX extended header content format is <length> <tag>=<value>\n where <length> is the decimal string encoding of the length of <tag>=<value>\n. +In other words it must start with the correct length. +For sector size 512 this is a problem because the PAX extended header content would start with the GPT header which starts with the string EFI PART. +If the sector size is greater than 512 we can use the remaining space in LBA 0 to write a length, dummy tag and some padding. +I may try this for a sector size of 4096, but I'm not happy that it doesn't work with sector size 512 which solo5 will default to.
    • +
+

If you have other ideas what I can do please reach out!

+
    +
  1. +

    This is somewhat simplified. There are some more nuances between the different formats, but for this purpose they don't matter much.

    +↩︎︎
+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/lwt_pause.html b/articles/lwt_pause.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9fe6b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/lwt_pause.html @@ -0,0 +1,263 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogCooperation and Lwt.pause + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

Cooperation and Lwt.pause

+

Here's a concrete example of the notion of availability and the scheduler used +(in this case Lwt). As you may know, at Robur we have developed a unikernel: +opam-mirror. It launches an HTTP service that can be used as an +OPAM overlay available from a Git repository (with opam repository add <name> <url>).

+

The purpose of such an unikernel was to respond to a failure of the official +repository which fortunately did not last long and to offer decentralisation +of such a service. You can use https://opam.robur.coop!

+

It was also useful at the Mirage retreat, where we don't usually have a +great internet connection. Caching packages for our OCaml users on the local +network has benefited us in terms of our Internet bill by allowing the OCaml +users to fetch opam packages over the local network instead of over the shared, +metered 4G Internet conncetion.

+

Finally, it's a unikernel that I also use on my server for my software +reproducibility service in order to have an overlay for my +software like Bob.

+

In short, I advise you to use it, you can see its installation +here (I think that in the context of a company, internally, it +can be interesting to have such a unikernel available).

+

However, this unikernel had a long-standing problem. We were already talking +about it at the Mirleft retreat, when we tried to get the repository from Git, +we had a (fairly long) unavailability of our HTTP server. Basically, we had to +wait ~10 min before the service offered by the unikernel was available.

+

Availability

+

If you follow my articles, as far as Miou is concerned, from +the outset I talk of the notion of availability if we were to make yet another +new scheduler for OCaml 5. We emphasised this notion because we had quite a few +problems on this subject and Lwt.

+

In this case, the notion of availability requires the scheduler to be able to +observe system events as often as possible. The problem is that Lwt doesn't +really offer this approach.

+

Indeed, Lwt offers a way of observing system events (Lwt.pause) but does not +do so systematically. The only time you really give the scheduler the +opportunity to see whether you can read or write is when you want to... +read or write...

+

More generally, it is said that Lwt's bind does not yield. In other words, +you can chain any number of functions together (via the >>= operator), but +from Lwt's point of view, there is no opportunity to see if an event has +occurred. Lwt always tries to go as far down your chain as possible:

+
    +
  • and finish your promise
    • +
  • or come across an operation that requires a system event (read or write)
    • +
  • or come across an Lwt.pause (as a yield point)
    • +
+

Lwt is rather sparse in adding cooperation points besides Lwt.pause and +read/write operations, in contrast with Async where the bind operator is a +cooperation point.

+

If there is no I/O, do not wrap in Lwt

+

It was (bad1) advice I was given. If a function doesn't do +I/O, there's no point in putting it in Lwt. At first glance, however, the idea +may be a good one. If you have a function that doesn't do I/O, whether it's in +the Lwt monad or not won't make any difference to the way Lwt tries to execute +it. Once again, Lwt should go as far as possible. So Lwt tries to solve both +functions in the same way:

+
val merge : int array -> int array -> int array
+
+let rec sort0 arr =
+  if Array.length arr <= 1 then arr
+  else
+    let m = Array.length arr / 2 in
+    let arr0 = sort0 (Array.sub arr 0 m) in
+    let arr1 = sort0 (Array.sub arr m (Array.length arr - m)) in
+    merge arr0 arr1
+
+let rec sort1 arr =
+  let open Lwt.Infix in
+  if Array.length arr <= 1 then Lwt.return arr
+  else
+    let m = Array.length arr / 2 in
+    Lwt.both
+      (sort1 (Array.sub arr m (Array.length arr - m)))
+      (sort1 (Array.sub arr 0 m))
+    >|= fun (arr0, arr1) ->
+    merge arr0 arr1
+
+

If we trace the execution of the two functions (for example, by displaying our +arr each time), we see the same behaviour whether Lwt is used or not. However, +what is interesting in the Lwt code is the use of both, which suggests that +the processes are running at the same time.

+

"At the same time" does not necessarily suggest the use of several cores or "in +parallel", but the possibility that the right-hand side may also have the +opportunity to be executed even if the left-hand side has not finished. In other +words, that the two processes can run concurrently.

+

But factually, this is not the case, because even if we had the possibility of +a point of cooperation (with the >|= operator), Lwt tries to go as far as +possible and decides to finish the left part before launching the right part:

+
$ ./a.out
+sort0: [|3; 4; 2; 1; 7; 5; 8; 9; 0; 6|]
+sort0: [|3; 4; 2; 1; 7|]
+sort0: [|3; 4|]
+sort0: [|2; 1; 7|]
+sort0: [|1; 7|]
+sort0: [|5; 8; 9; 0; 6|]
+sort0: [|5; 8|]
+sort0: [|9; 0; 6|]
+sort0: [|0; 6|]
+
+sort1: [|3; 4; 2; 1; 7; 5; 8; 9; 0; 6|]
+sort1: [|3; 4; 2; 1; 7|]
+sort1: [|3; 4|]
+sort1: [|2; 1; 7|]
+sort1: [|1; 7|]
+sort1: [|5; 8; 9; 0; 6|]
+sort1: [|5; 8|]
+sort1: [|9; 0; 6|]
+sort1: [|0; 6|]
+
+
+

1: However, if you are not interested in availability +and would like the scheduler to try to resolve your promises as quickly as +possible, this advice is clearly valid.

+

Performances

+

It should be noted, however, that Lwt has an impact. Even if the behaviour is +the same, the Lwt layer is not free. A quick benchmark shows that there is an +overhead:

+
let _ =
+  let t0 = Unix.gettimeofday () in
+  for i = 0 to 1000 do let _ = sort0 arr in () done;
+  let t1 = Unix.gettimeofday () in
+  Fmt.pr "sort0 %fs\n%!" (t1 -. t0)
+
+let _ =
+  let t0 = Unix.gettimeofday () in
+  Lwt_main.run @@ begin
+    let open Lwt.Infix in
+    let rec go idx = if idx = 1000 then Lwt.return_unit
+      else sort1 arr >>= fun _ -> go (succ idx) in
+    go 0 end;
+  let t1 = Unix.gettimeofday () in
+  Fmt.pr "sort1 %fs\n%!" (t1 -. t0)
+
+
$ ./a.out
+sort0 0.000264s
+sort1 0.000676s
+
+

This is the fairly obvious argument for not using Lwt when there's no I/O. Then, +if the Lwt monad is really needed, a simple Lwt.return at the very last +instance is sufficient (or, better, the use of Lwt.map / >|=).

+

Cooperation and concrete example

+

So Lwt.both is the one to use when we want to run two processes +"at the same time". For the example, ocaml-git attempts both to +retrieve a repository and also to analyse it. This can be seen in this snippet +of code.

+

In our example with ocaml-git, the problem "shouldn't" appear because, in this +case, both the left and right side do I/O (the left side binds into a socket +while the right side saves Git objects in your file system). So, in our tests +with Git_unix, we were able to see that the analysis (right-hand side) was +well executed and 'interleaved' with the reception of objects from the network.

+

Composability

+

However, if we go back to our initial problem, we were talking about our +opam-mirror unikernel. As you might expect, there is no standalone MirageOS file +system (and many of our unikernels don't need one). So, in the case of +opam-mirror, we use the ocaml-git memory implementation: Git_mem.

+

Git_mem is different in that Git objects are simply stored in a Hashtbl. +There is no cooperation point when it comes to obtaining Git objects from this +Hashtbl. So let's return to our original advice:

+
+

don't wrap code in Lwt if it doesn't do I/O.

+
+

And, of course, Git_mem doesn't do I/O. It does, however, require the process +to be able to work with Lwt. In this case, Git_mem wraps the results in Lwt +as late as possible (as explained above, so as not to slow down our +processes unnecessarily). The choice inevitably means that the right-hand side +can no longer offer cooperation points. And this is where our problem begins: +composition.

+

In fact, we had something like:

+
let clone socket git =
+  Lwt.both (receive_pack socket) (analyse_pack git) >>= fun ((), ()) ->
+  Lwt.return_unit
+
+

However, our analyse_pack function is an injection of a functor representing +the Git backend. In other words, Git_unix or Git_mem:

+
module Make (Git : Git.S) = struct
+  let clone socket git =
+    Lwt.both (receive_pack socket) (Git.analyse_pack git) >>= fun ((), ()) ->
+    Lwt.return_unit
+end
+
+

Composability poses a problem here because even if Git_unix and Git_mem +offer the same function (so both modules can be used), the fact remains that one +will always offer a certain availability to other services (such as an HTTP +service) while the other will offer a Lwt function which will try to go as far +as possible quite to make other services unavailable.

+

Composing with one or the other therefore does not produce the same behavior.

+

Where to put Lwt.pause?

+

In this case, our analyse_pack does read/write on the Git store. As far as +Git_mem is concerned, we said that these read/write accesses were just +accesses to a Hashtbl.

+

Thanks to Hannes' help, it took us an afternoon to work out where we +needed to add cooperation points in Git_mem so that analyse_pack could give +another service such as HTTP the opportunity to work. Basically, this series of +commits shows where we needed to add Lwt.pause.

+

However, this points to a number of problems:

+
    +
  1. it is not necessarily true that on the basis of composability alone (by +functor or by value), Lwt reacts in the same way
    2. +
  2. Subtly, you have to dig into the code to find the right opportunities where +to put, by hand, Lwt.pause.
    3. +
  3. In the end, Lwt has no mechanisms for ensuring the availability of a service +(this is something that must be taken into account by the implementer).
    4. +
+

In-depth knowledge of Lwt

+

I haven't mentioned another problem we encountered with Armael when +implementing multipart_form where the use of stream meant that +Lwt didn't interleave the two processes and the use of a bounded stream was +required. Again, even when it comes to I/O, Lwt always tries to go as far as +possible in one of two branches of a Lwt.both.

+

This allows us to conclude that beyond the monad, Lwt has subtleties in its +behaviour which may be different from another scheduler such as Async (hence the +incompatibility between the two, which is not just of the 'a t type).

+

Digression on Miou

+

That's why we put so much emphasis on the notion of availability when it comes +to Miou: to avoid repeating the mistakes of the past. The choices that can be +made with regard to this notion in particular have a major impact, and can be +unsatisfactory to the user in certain cases (for example, so-called pure +calculations could take longer with Miou than with another scheduler).

+

In this sense, we have tried to constrain ourselves in the development of Miou +through the use of Effect.Shallow which requires us to always re-attach our +handler (our scheduler) as soon as an effect is produced, unlike Effect.Deep +which can re-use the same handler for several effects. In other words, and as +we've described here, an effect yields!

+

Conclusion

+

As far as opam-mirror is concerned, we now have an unikernel that is available +even if it attempts to clone a Git repository and save Git objects in memory. At +least, an HTTP service can co-exist with ocaml-git!

+

I hope we'll be able to use it at the next retreat, which I invite +you to attend to talk more about Lwt, scheduler, Git and unikernels!

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/miragevpn-ncp.html b/articles/miragevpn-ncp.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34a6770 --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/miragevpn-ncp.html @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogMirageVPN updated (AEAD, NCP) + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

MirageVPN updated (AEAD, NCP)

+

Updating MirageVPN

+

As announced earlier this month, we've been working hard over the last months on MirageVPN (initially developed in 2019, targeting OpenVPN™ 2.4.7, now 2.6.6). We managed to receive funding from NGI Assure call (via NLnet). We've made over 250 commits with more than 10k lines added, and 18k lines removed. We closed nearly all old issues, and opened 100 fresh ones, of which we already closed more than half of them. :D

+

Actual bugs fixed (that were leading to non-working MirageVPN applications)

+

In more detail, we had a specific configuration running over all the years, namely UDP mode with static keys (no TLS handshake, etc.). There were several issues (bitrot) that we encountered and solved along the path, amongst others:

+ +

To avoid any future breakage while revising the code (cleaning it up, extending it), we are now building several unikernels as part of our CI system. We also have setup OpenVPN™ servers with various configurations that we periodically test with our new code (we'll also work on further automation thereof).

+

New features: AEAD ciphers, supporting more configuration primitives

+

We added various configuration primitives, amongst them configuratble tls ciphersuites, minimal and maximal tls version to use, tls-crypt-v2, verify-x509-name, cipher, remote-random, ...

+

From a cryptographic point of view, we are now supporting more authentication hashes via the configuration directive auth, namely the SHA2 family - previously, only SHA1 was supported, AEAD ciphers (AES-128-GCM, AES-256-GCM, CHACHA20-POLY1305) - previously only AES-256-CBC was supported.

+

NCP - Negotiation of cryptographic parameters

+

OpenVPN™ has a way to negotiate cryptographic parameters, instead of hardcoding them in the configuration. The client can propose its supported ciphers, and other features (MTU, directly request a push message for IP configuration, use TLS exporter secret instead of the hand-crafted (TLS 1.0 based PRF), ...) once the TLS handshake has been completed.

+

We are now supporting this negotiation protocol, and have been working on the different extensions that are useful to us. Namely, transmitting the supported ciphers, request push (which deletes an entire round-trip), TLS-exporter. This will also be part of the protocol specification that we're working on while finishing our implementation.

+

Cleanups and refactorings

+

We also took some time to cleanup our code base, removing Lwt.fail (which doesn't produce proper backtraces), using lzo from the decompress package (since that code has been upstreamed a while ago), remove unneeded dependencies (rresult, astring), avoiding assert false in pattern matches by improving types, improve the log output (include a timestamp, show log source, use colors).

+

Future

+

There is still some work that we want to do, namely a QubesOS client implementation, an operators manual, extending our specification, resurrecting and adapting the server implementation, supporting more NCP features (if appropriate), etc. So stay tuned, we'll also provide reproducible binaries once we're ready.

+

Don't hesitate to reach out to us on GitHub, by mail or me personally on Mastodon if you're stuck.

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/miragevpn-performance.html b/articles/miragevpn-performance.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..591b8f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/miragevpn-performance.html @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogSpeeding up MirageVPN and use it in the wild + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

Speeding up MirageVPN and use it in the wild

+

As we were busy continuing to work on MirageVPN, we got in touch with eduVPN, who are interested about deploying MirageVPN. We got example configuration from their side, and fixed some issues, and also implemented tls-crypt - which was straightforward since we earlier spend time to implement tls-crypt-v2.

+

In January, they gave MirageVPN another try, and measured the performance -- which was very poor -- MirageVPN (run as a Unix binary) provided a bandwith of 9.3Mb/s, while OpenVPN provided a bandwidth of 360Mb/s (using a VPN tunnel over TCP).

+

We aim at spending less resources for computing, thus the result was not satisfying for us. We re-read a lot of code, refactored a lot, and are now at ~250Mb/s.

+

Tooling for performance engineering of OCaml

+

As a first approach we connected with the MirageVPN unix client & OpenVPN client to a eduVPN server and ran speed tests using fast.com. This was sufficient to show the initial huge gap in download speeds between MirageVPN and OpenVPN. There is a lot of noise in this approach as there are many computers and routers involved in this setup, and it is hard to reproduce.

+

To get more reproducible results we set up a local VM with openvpn and iperf3 installed. On the host machine we can then connect to the VM's OpenVPN server and run iperf3 against the VPN ip address. This worked more reliably. However, it was still noisy and not suitable to measure single digit percentage changes in performance. +To better guide the performance engineering, we also developed a microbenchmark using OCaml tooling. This will setup a client and server without any input and output, and transfer data in memory.

+

We also re-read our code and used the Linux utility perf together with Flamegraph to graph its output. This works nicely with OCaml programs (we're using the 4.14.1 compiler and runtime system). We did the performance engineering on Unix binaries, i.e. not on MirageOS unikernels - but the MirageVPN protocol is used in both scenarios - thus the performance improvements described here are also in the MirageVPN unikernels.

+

Takeaway of performance engineering

+

The learnings of our performance engineering are in three areas:

+
    +
  • Formatting strings is computational expensive -- thus if in an error case a hexdump is produced of a packet, its construction must be delayed for when the error case is executed (we have this PR and that PR). Alain Frisch wrote a nice blog post at LexiFi about performance of Printf and Format[1].
    • +
  • Rethink allocations: fundamentally, only a single big buffer (to be send out) for each incoming packet should be allocated, not a series of buffers that are concatenated (see this PR and that PR). Additionally, not zeroing out the just allocated buffer (if it is filled with data anyways) removes some further instructions (see this PR). And we figured that appending to an empty buffer nevertheless allocated and copied in OCaml, so we worked on this PR.
    • +
  • Still an open topic is: we are in the memory-safe language OCaml, and we sometimes extract data out of a buffer (or set data in a buffer). Now, each operation lead to bounds checks (that we do not touch memory that is not allocated or not ours). However, if we just checked for the buffer being long enough (either by checking the length, or by allocating a specific amount of data), these bounds checks are superfluous. So far, we don't have an automated solution for this issue, but we are discussing it in the OCaml community, and are eager to find a solution to avoid unneeded computations.
    • +
+

Conclusion

+

To conclude: we already achieved a factor of 25 in performance by adapting the code in various ways. We have ideas to improve the performance even more in the future - we also work on using OCaml string and bytes, instead of off-the-OCaml-heap-allocated bigarrays (see our previous article, which provided some speedups).

+

Don't hesitate to reach out to us on GitHub, or by mail if you're stuck.

+

We want to thank NLnet for their funding (via NGI assure), and eduVPN for their interest.

+
    +
  1. +

    It has come to our attention that the blog post is rather old (2012) and that the implementation has been completely rewritten since then.

    +↩︎︎
+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/miragevpn-server.html b/articles/miragevpn-server.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e1250a --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/miragevpn-server.html @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogMirageVPN server + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

MirageVPN server

+

It is a great pleasure to finally announce that we have finished a server implementation for MirageVPN (OpenVPN™-compatible). This allows to setup a very robust VPN network on both the client and the server side.

+

As announced last year, MirageVPN is a reimplemtation of OpenVPN™ in OCaml, with MirageOS unikernels.

+

Why a MirageVPN server?

+

Providing Internet services with programming languages that have not much safety requires a lot of discipline by the developers to avoid issues which may lead to exploitable services that are attacked (and thus will circumvent any security goals). Especially services that are critical for security and privacy, it is crucial to avoid common memory safety pitfalls.

+

Some years back, when we worked on the client implementation, we also drafted a server implementation. The reasoning was that a lot of the code was already there, and just a few things needed to be developed to allow clients to connect there.

+

Now, we spend several months to push our server implementation into a state where it is usable and we are happy for everyone who wants to test it. We also adapted the modern ciphers we recently implemented for the client, and also tls-crypt and tls-crypt-v2 for the server implementation.

+

The overall progress was tracked in this issue. We developed, next to the MirageOS unikernel, also a test server that doesn't use any tun interface.

+

Please move along to our handbook with the chapter on MirageVPN server.

+

If you encounter any issues, please open an issue at the repository.

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/miragevpn.html b/articles/miragevpn.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb531fc --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/miragevpn.html @@ -0,0 +1,124 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogMirageVPN & tls-crypt-v2 + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

MirageVPN & tls-crypt-v2

+

In 2019 Robur started working on a OpenVPN™-compatible implementation in OCaml. +The project was funded for 6 months in 2019 by prototypefund. +In late 2022 we applied again for funding this time to the NGI Assure open call, and our application was eventually accepted. +In this blog post I will explain why reimplementing the OpenVPN™ protocol in OCaml is a worthwhile effort, and describe the Miragevpn implementation and in particular the tls-crypt-v2 mechanism.

+

What even is OpenVPN™?

+

OpenVPN™ is a protocol and software implementation to provide virtual private networks: computer networks that do not exist in hardware and are encrypted and tunnelled through existing networks. +Common use cases for this is to provide access to internal networks for remote workers, and for routing internet traffic through another machine for various reasons e.g. when using untrusted wifi, privacy from a snooping ISP, circumventing geoblock etc.

+

It is a protocol that has been worked on and evolved over the decades. +OpenVPN™ has a number of modes of operations as well as a number of options in the order of hundreds. +The modes can be categorized into two main categories: static mode and TLS mode. +The former mode uses static symmetric keys, and will be removed in the upcoming OpenVPN™ 2.7 (community edition). +I will not focus on static mode in this post. +The latter uses separate data & control channels where the control channel uses TLS - more on that later.

+

Why reimplement it? And why in OCaml?

+

Before diving into TLS mode and eventually tls-crypt-v2 it's worth to briefly discuss why we spend time reimplementing the OpenVPN™ protocol. +You may ask yourself: why not just use the existing tried and tested implementation?

+

OpenVPN™ community edition is implemented in the C programming language. +It heavily uses the OpenSSL library[1] which is as well written in C and has in the past had some notable security vulnerabilities. +Many vulnerabilities and bugs in C can be easily avoided in other languages due to bounds checking and stricter and more expressive type systems. +The state machine of the protocol can be more easily be expressed in OCaml, and some properties of the protocol can be encoded in the type system.

+

Another reason is Mirage OS, a library operating system implemented in OCaml. +We work on the Mirage project and write applications (unikernels) using Mirage. +In many cases it would be desirable to be able to connect to an existing VPN network[2], +or be able to offer a VPN network to clients using OpenVPN™.

+

Consider a VPN provider: +The VPN provider runs many machines that run an operating system in order to run the user-space OpenVPN™ service. +There are no real users on the system, and a lot of unrelated processes and legacy layers are around that are not needed. +With a Mirage OS unikernel, which is basically a statically linked binary and operating system such a setup becomes simpler with fewer layers. +With reproducible builds deployment and updates will be straightforward.

+

Another very interesting example is a unikernel for Qubes OS that we have planned. +Qubes OS is an operating system with a high focus on security. +It offers an almost seamless experience of running applications in different virtual machines on the same machine. +The networking provided to a application (virtual machine) can be restricted to only go through the VPN. +It is possible to use OpenVPN™ for such a setup, but that requires running OpenVPN™ in a full Linux virtual machine. +With Mirage OS the resource footprint is typically much smaller than an equivalent application running in a Linux virtual machine; often the memory footprint is smaller by an order.

+

Finally, while it's not an explicit goal of ours, reimplementing a protocol without an explicit specification can help uncover bugs and things that need better documentation in the original implementation.

+

TLS mode

+

There are different variants of TLS mode, but what they share is separate "control" channel and "data" channel. +The control channel is used to do a TLS handshake, and with the established TLS session data channel encryption keys, username/password authentication, etc. is negotiated. +Once this dance has been performed and data channel encryption keys have been negotiated the peers can exchange IP packets over the data channel.

+

Over the years a number of mechanisms has been implemented to protect the TLS stack from being exposed to third parties, protect against denial of service attacks and to hide information exchanged during a TLS handshake such as certificates (which was an isue before TLS 1.3). +These are known as tls-auth, tls-crypt and tls-crypt-v2. +The tls-auth mechanism adds a pre-shared key for hmac authentication on the control channel. +This makes it possible for an OpenVPN™ server to reject early clients that don't know the shared key before any TLS handshakes are performed. +In tls-crypt the control channel is encrypted as well as hmac authenticated using a pre-shared key. +Common to both is that the pre-shared key is shared between the server and all clients. +For large deployments this significantly reduces the usefulness - the key is more likely to be leaked the greate the number of clients who share this key.

+

tls-crypt-v2

+

To improve on tls-crypt, tls-crypt-v2 uses one pre-shared key per client. +This could be a lot of keys for the server to keep track of, so instead of storing all the client keys on the server the server has a special tls-crypt-v2 server key that is used to wrap the client keys. +That is, each client has their own client key as well as the client key wrapped using the server key. +The protocol is then extended so the client in the first message appends the wrapped key unencrypted. +The server can then decrypt and verify the client key and decrypt the rest of the packet. +Then the client and server use the client key just as in tls-crypt.

+

This is great! +Each client can have their own key, and the server doesn't need to keep a potentially large database of client keys. +What if the client's key is leaked? +A detail I didn't mention is that the wrapped key contains metadata. +By default this is the current timestamp, but it is possible on creation to put any (relative short) binary data in there as the metadata. +The server can then be configured to check the metadata by calling a script.

+

An issue exists that an initial packet takes up resources on the server because the server needs to

+
    +
  1. decrypt the wrapped key, and
    2. +
  2. keep the unwrapped key and other data in memory while waiting for the handshake to complete.
    3. +
+

This can be abused in an attack very similar to a TCP SYN flood. +Without tls-crypt-v2 OpenVPN uses a specially crafted session ID (a 64 bit identifier) to avoid this issue similar to SYN cookies. +To address this in OpenVPN 2.6 the protocol for tls-crypt-v2 was extended yet further with a 'HMAC cookie' mechanism. +The client sends the same packet as before, but uses a sequence number 0x0f000001 instead of 1 to signal support of this mechanism. +The server responds in a similar manner with a sequence number of 0x0f000001 and the packet is appended with a tag-length-value encoded list of flags. +At the moment only one tag and one value is defined which signifies the server supports HMAC cookies - this seems unnecessarily complex, but is done to allow future extensibility. +Finally, if the server supports HMAC cookies, the client sends a packet where the wrapped key is appended in cleartext. +The server is now able to decrypt the third packet without having to keep the key from the first packet around and can verify the session id.

+

Cool! Let's deploy it!

+

Great! +We build on a daily basis unikernels in our reproducible builds setup. +At the time of writing we have published a Miragevpn router unikernel acting as a client. +For general instructions on running Mirage unikernels see our reproducible builds blog post. +The unikernel will need a block device containing the OpenVPN™ configuration and a network device. +More detailed instructions Will Follow Soon™! +Don't hesitate to reach out to us on GitHub, by mail or me personally on Mastodon if you're stuck.

+
    +
  1. +

    It is possible to compile OpenVPN™ community edition with Mbed TLS instead of OpenSSL which is written in C as well.

    +↩︎︎
  2. +

    I use the term "VPN network" to mean the virtual private network itself. It is a bit odd because the 'N' in 'VPN' is 'Network', but without disambiguation 'VPN' could refer to the network itself, the software or the service.

    +↩︎︎
+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/qubes-miragevpn.html b/articles/qubes-miragevpn.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f0ca9b --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/qubes-miragevpn.html @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogqubes-miragevpn, a MirageVPN client for QubesOS + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

qubes-miragevpn, a MirageVPN client for QubesOS

+

We are pleased to announce the arrival of a new unikernel: +qubes-miragevpn. The latter is the result of work begun +several months ago on miragevpn.

+

Indeed, with the ambition of completing our unikernel suite and the success of +qubes-mirage-firewall - as well as the general aims of +QubesOS - we thought it would be a good idea to offer this community a unikernel +capable of acting as an OpenVPN client, from which other virtual machines (app +qubes) can connect so that all their connections pass through the OpenVPN +tunnel.

+

QubesOS & MirageOS

+

Unikernels and QubesOS have always been a tempting idea for users in the sense +that a network application (such as a firewall or VPN client) could be smaller +than a Linux kernel: no keyboard, mouse, wifi management, etc. Just network +management via virtual interfaces should suffice.

+

In this case, the unikernel corresponds to this ideal where, starting from a +base (Solo5) that only allows the strictly necessary (reading and +writing on a virtual interface or block device) and building on top of it all +the application logic strictly necessary to the objective we wish to achieve +reduces, in effect, drastically:

+
    +
  1. the unikernel's attack surface
    2. +
  2. its weight
    3. +
  3. its memory usage
    4. +
+

We won't go into all the work that's been done to maintain and improve +qubes-mirage-firewall over the last 10 +years1, but it's clear that this particular unikernel has +found its audience, who aren't necessarily OCaml and MirageOS aficionados.

+

In other words, qubes-mirage-firewall may well be a +fine example of what can actually be done with MirageOS, and of real utility.

+
+

1: marmarek, Mindy or +mato were (and still are) heavily involved in the work between QubesOS +and MirageOS. We'd also like to thank them, because if we're able to continue +this adventure, it's also thanks to them.

+

QubesOS & MirageVPN

+

So, after a lengthy development phase for MirageVPN, we set about developing a +unikernel for QubesOS to offer an OpenVPN client as an operating system. We'd +like to give special thanks to Pierre Alain, who helped us to better +understand QubesOS and its possibilities.

+

The unikernel is available here: https://github.com/robur-coop/qubes-miragevpn +A tutorial has just been created to help QubesOS users install and configure +such an unikernel: https://robur-coop.github.io/miragevpn-handbook/

+

In the same way as qubes-mirage-firewall, we hope to +offer a solution that works and expand the circle of MirageOS and unikernel +users!

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/speeding-ec-string.html b/articles/speeding-ec-string.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae8552b --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/speeding-ec-string.html @@ -0,0 +1,138 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogSpeeding elliptic curve cryptography + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

Speeding elliptic curve cryptography

+

TL;DR: replacing cstruct with string, we gain a factor of 2.5 in performance.

+

Mirage-crypto-ec

+

In April 2021 We published our implementation of elliptic curve cryptography (as mirage-crypto-ec opam package) - this is DSA and DH for NIST curves P224, P256, P384, and P521, and also Ed25519 (EdDSA) and X25519 (ECDH). We use fiat-crypto for the cryptographic primitives, which emits C code that by construction is correct (note: earlier we stated "free of timing side-channels", but this is a huge challenge, and as reported by Edwin Török likely impossible on current x86 hardware). More C code (such as point_add, point_double, and further 25519 computations including tables) have been taken from the BoringSSL code base. A lot of OCaml code originates from our TLS 1.3 work in 2018, where Etienne Millon, Nathan Rebours, and Clément Pascutto interfaced elliptic curves for OCaml (with the goal of being usable with MirageOS).

+

The goal of mirage-crypto-ec was: develop elliptic curve support for OCaml & MirageOS quickly - which didn't leave much time to focus on performance. As time goes by, our mileage varies, and we're keen to use fewer resources - and thus fewer CPU time and a smaller memory footprint is preferable.

+

Memory allocation and calls to C

+

OCaml uses managed memory with a generational copying collection. To safely call a C function at any point in time when the arguments are OCaml values (memory allocated on the OCaml heap), it is crucial that while the C function is executed, the arguments should stay at the same memory location, and not being moved by the GC. Otherwise the C code may be upset retrieving wrong data or accessing unmapped memory.

+

There are several strategies to achieve this, ranging from "let's use another memory area where the GC doesn't mess around with", "do not run any GC while executing the C code" (read further in the OCaml cheaper C calls manual), "deeply copy the arguments to a non-moving memory area before executing C code", and likely others.

+

For our elliptic curve operations, the C code is pretty simple - there are no memory allocations happening in C, neither are exceptions raised. Also, the execution time of the code is constant and pretty small.

+

ocaml-cstruct

+

In the MirageOS ecosystem, a core library is cstruct - which purpose is manifold: provide ppx rewriters to define C structure layouts in OCaml (getter/setter functions are generated), as well as enums; also a fundamental idea is to use OCaml bigarray which is non-moving memory not allocated on the OCaml heap but directly by calling malloc. The memory can even be page-aligned, as required by some C software, such as Xen. Convenient functionality, such as "retrieve a big-endian unsigned 32 bit integer from offset X in this buffer" are provided as well.

+

But there's a downside to it - as time moves along, Xen is no longer the only target for MirageOS, and other virtualization mechanisms (such as KVM / virtio) do not require page-aligned memory ranges that are retained at a given memory address. It also turns out that cstruct spends a lot of time in bounds checks. Another huge downside is that OCaml tooling (such as statmemprof) was for a long time (maybe still is not?) unaware of out-of-OCaml-GC allocated memory (cstruct uses bigarray as underlying buffer). Freeing up the memory requires finalizers to be executed - after all pretty tedious (expensive) and against the OCaml runtime philosophy.

+

As time moves forward, also the OCaml standard library got support for (a) strings are immutable byte vectors now (since 4.06 - released in 2017 -- there's as well an interface for mutable/immutable cstruct, but that is not used as far as I can tell), (b) retrieve a certain amount of octets in a string or byte as (unsigned) integer number (since 4.08 - released in 2019, while some additional functionality is only available in 4.13).

+

Still, bigarrays are necessary in certain situations - if you need to have a non-moving (shared) area of memory, as in the Xen interface, but also e.g. when you compute in parallel in different processes, or when you need mmap()ed files.

+

Putting it together

+

Already in October 2021, Romain proposed to not use cstruct, but bytes for mirage-crypto-ec. The PR was sitting around since there were benchmarks missing, and developer time was small. But recently, Virgile Robles proposed another line of work to use pre-computed tables for NIST curves to speed up the elliptic curve cryptography. Conducting performance evaluation resulted that the "use bytes instead of cstruct" combined with pre-computed tables made a huge difference (factor of 6) compared to the latest release.

+

To ease reviewing changes, we decided to focus on landing the "use bytes instead of cstruct" first, and gladly Pierre Alain had already rebased the existing patch onto the latest release of mirage-crypto-ec. We also went further and use string where applicable instead of bytes. For safety reasons we also introduced an API layer which (a) allocates a byte vector for the result (b) calls the primitive, and (c) transforms the byte vector into an immutable string. This API is more in line with functional programming (immutable values), and since allocations and deallocations of values are cheap, there's no measurable performance decrease.

+

All the changes are internal, there's no external API that needs to be adjusted - still there's at the API boundary one conversion of cstruct to string (and back for the return value) done.

+

We used perf to construct some flame graphs (of the ECDSA P256 sign), shown below.

+

Flamegraph of ECDSA sign with cstruct

+

The flame graph of P256 ECDSA sign using the mirage-crypto release 0.11.2. The majority of time is spent in "do_sign", which calls inv (inversion), scalar_mult (majority of time), and x_of_finite_point_mod_n. The scalar multiplication spends time in add, double and select. Several towers starting at Cstruct.create_919 are visible.

+

With PR#146, the flame graph looks different:

+

Flamegraph of ECDSA sign with string

+

Now, the allocation towers do not exist anymore. The time of a sign operation is spend in inv, scalar_mult, and x_of_finite_point_mod_n. There's still room for improvements in these operations.

+

Performance numbers

+

All numbers were gathered on a Lenovo X250 laptop with a Intel i7-5600U CPU @ 2.60GHz. We used OCaml 4.14.1 as compiler. The baseline is OpenSSL 3.0.12. All numbers are in operations per second.

+

NIST P-256

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
op0.11.2PR#146speedupOpenSSLspeedup
sign74818062.41x3439219.04x
verify2856552.30x1299919.85x
ecdh85817852.08x165149.25x

Curve 25519

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
op0.11.2PR#146speedupOpenSSLspeedup
sign10713115601.08x219431.90x
verify760083141.09x70810.85x
ecdh12144134571.11x262011.95x

Note: to re-create the performance numbers, you can run openssl speed ecdsap256 ecdhp256 ed25519 ecdhx25519 - for the OCaml site, use dune bu bench/speed.exe --rel and _build/default/bench/speed.exe ecdsa-sign ecdsa-verify ecdh-share.

+

The performance improvements are up to 2.5 times compared to the latest mirage-crypto-ec release (look at the 4th column). In comparison to OpenSSL, we still lack a factor of 20 for the NIST curves, and up to a factor of 2 for 25519 computations (look at the last column).

+

If you have ideas for improvements, let us know via an issue, eMail, or a pull request :) We started to gather some for 25519 by comparing our code with changes in BoringSSL over the last years.

+

As a spoiler, for P-256 sign there's another improvement of around 4.5 with Virgile's PR using pre-computed tables also for NIST curves.

+

The road ahead for 2024

+

Remove all cstruct, everywhere, apart from in mirage-block-xen and mirage-net-xen ;). It was a fine decision in the early MirageOS days, but from a performance point of view, and for making our packages more broadly usable without many dependencies, it is time to remove cstruct. Earlier this year we already removed cstruct from ocaml-tar for similar reasons.

+

Our MirageOS work is only partially funded, we cross-fund our work by commercial contracts and public (EU) funding. We are part of a non-profit company, you can make a (tax-deductable - at least in the EU) donation (select "DONATION robur" in the dropdown menu).

+

We're keen to get MirageOS deployed in production - if you would like to do that, don't hesitate to reach out to us via eMail team at robur.coop

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/articles/tar-release.html b/articles/tar-release.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..faf10bf --- /dev/null +++ b/articles/tar-release.html @@ -0,0 +1,405 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogThe new Tar release, a retrospective + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
Back to index + +
+

The new Tar release, a retrospective

+

We are delighted to announce the new release of ocaml-tar. A small library for +reading and writing tar archives in OCaml. Since this is a major release, we'll +take the time in this article to explain the work that's been done by the +cooperative on this project.

+

Tar is an old project. Originally written by David Scott as part of Mirage, +this project is particularly interesting for building bridges between the tools +we can offer and what already exists. Tar is, in fact, widely used. So we're +both dealing with a format that's older than I am (but I'm used to it by email) +and a project that's been around since... 2012 (over 10 years!).

+

But we intend to maintain and improve it, since we're using it for the +opam-mirror project among other things - this unikernel is to +provide an opam-repository "tarball" for opam when you do opam update.

+

Cstruct.t & bytes

+

As some of you may have noticed, over the last few months we've begun a fairly +substantial change to the Mirage ecosystem, replacing the use of Cstruct.t in +key places with bytes/string.

+

This choice is based on 2 considerations:

+
    +
  • we came to realize that Cstruct.t could be very costly in terms of +performance
    • +
  • Cstruct.t remains a "Mirage" structure; outside the Mirage ecosystem, the +use of Cstruct.t is not so "obvious".
    • +
+

The pull-request is available here: https://github.com/mirage/ocaml-tar/pull/137. +The discussion can be interesting in discovering common bugs (uninitialized +buffer, invalid access). There's also a small benchmark to support our initial +intuition1.

+

But this PR can also be an opportunity to understand the existence of +Cstruct.t in the Mirage ecosystem and the reasons for this historic choice.

+

Cstruct.t as a non-moveable data

+

I've already made a list of pros/cons when it comes to +bigarrays. Indeed, Cstruct.t is based on a bigarray:

+
type buffer = (char, Bigarray.int8_unsigned_elt, Bigarray.c_layout) Bigarray.Array1.t
+
+type t =
+  { buffer : buffer
+  ; off : int
+  ; len : int }
+
+

The experienced reader may rightly wonder why Cstruct.t is a bigarray with off +and len. First, we need to clarify what a bigarray is for OCaml.

+

A bigarray is a somewhat special value in OCaml. This value is allocated in the +C heap. In other words, its contents are not in OCaml's garbage collector, but +exist outside it. The first (and very important) implication of this feature is +that the contents of a bigarray do not move (even if the GC tries to defragment +the memory). This feature has several advantages:

+
    +
  • in parallel programming, it can be very interesting to use a bigarray knowing +that, from the point of view of the 2 processes, the position of the bigarray +will never change - this is essentially what parmap does (before +OCaml 5).
    • +
  • for calculations such as checksum or hash, it can be interesting to use a +bigarray. The calculation would not be interrupted by the GC since the +bigarray does not move. The calculation can therefore be continued at the same +point, which can help the CPU to better predict the next stage of the +calculation. This is what digestif offers and what +decompress requires.
    • +
  • for one reason or another, particularly when interacting with something other +than OCaml, you need to offer a memory zone that cannot move. This is +particularly true for unikernels as Xen guests (where the net device +corresponds to a fixed memory zone with which we need to interact) or +mmap.
    • +
  • there are other subtleties more related to the way OCaml compiles. For +example, using bigarray layouts to manipulate "bigger words" can really have +an impact on performance, as this PR on utcp shows.
    • +
  • finally, it may be useful to store sensitive information in a bigarray so as +to have the opportunity to clean up this information as quickly as possible +(ensuring that the GC has not made a copy) in certain situations.
    • +
+

All these examples show that bigarrays can be of real interest as long as +their uses are properly contextualized - which ultimately remains very +specific. Our experience of using them in Mirage has shown us their advantages, +but also, and above all, their disadvantages:

+
    +
  • keep in mind that bigarray allocation uses either a system call like mmap or +malloc(). The latter, compared with what OCaml can offer, is slow. As soon +as you need to allocate bytes/strings smaller than +(256 * words), these values are allocated in the minor heap, +which is incredibly fast to allocate (3 processor instructions which can be +predicted very well). So, preferring to allocate a 10-byte bigarray rather +than a 10-byte bytes penalizes you enormously.
    • +
  • since the bigarray exists in the C heap, the GC has a special mechanism for +knowing when to free() the zone as soon as the value is no longer in use. +Reference-counting is used to then allocate "small" values in the OCaml heap +and use them to manipulate indirectly the bigarray.
    • +
+

Ownership, proxy and GC

+

This last point deserves a little clarification, particularly with regard to the +Bigarray.sub function. This function will not create a new, smaller bigarray +and copy what was in the old one to the new one (as Bytes.sub/String.sub +does). In fact, OCaml will allocate a "proxy" of your bigarray that represents a +subfield. This is where reference-counting comes in. This proxy value needs +the initial bigarray to be manipulated. So, as long as proxies exist, the GC +cannot free() the initial bigarray.

+

This poses several problems:

+
    +
  • the first is the allocation of these proxies. They can help us to manipulate +the initial bigarray in several places without copying it, but as time goes +by, these proxies could be very expensive
    • +
  • the second is GC intervention. You still need to scan the bigarray, in a +particular way, to know whether or not to keep it. This particular scan, once +again in time immemorial, was not all that common.
    • +
  • the third concerns bigarray ownership. Since we're talking about proxies, we +can imagine 2 competing tasks having access to the same bigarray.
    • +
+

As far as the first point is concerned, Bigarray.sub could still be "slow" for +small data since it was, de facto (since a bigarray always has a finalizer - +don't forget reference counting!), allocated in the major heap. And, in truth, +this is perhaps the main reason for the existence of Cstruct! To have a "proxy" +to a bigarray allocated in the minor heap (and, be fast). But since +Pierre Chambart's PR#92, the problem is no more.

+

The second point, on the other hand, is still topical, even if we can see that +considerable efforts have been made. What we see every +day on our unikernels is the pressure that can be put on +the GC when it comes to bigarrays. Indeed, bigarrays use memory and making the C +heap cohabit with the OCaml heap inevitably comes at a cost. As far as +unikernels are concerned, which have a more limited memory than an OCaml +application, we reach this limit rather quickly and we therefore ask the GC to +work more specifically on our 10 or 20 byte bigarrays...

+

Finally, the third point can be the toughest. On several occasions, we've +noticed competing accesses on our bigarrays that we didn't want (for example, +http-lwt-client had this problem). In our experience, +it's very difficult to observe and know that there is indeed an unauthorized +concurrent access changing the contents of our buffer. In this respect, the +question remains open as regards Cstruct.t and the possibility of encoding +ownership of a Cstruct.t in the type to prevent unauthorized access. +This PR is interesting to see all the discussions that have taken +place on this subject2.

+

It should be noted that, with regard to the third point, the problem also +applies to bytes and the use of Bytes.unsafe_to_string!

+

Conclusion about Cstruct

+

We hope we've been thorough enough in our experience with Cstruct. If we go back +to the initial definition of our Cstruct.t shown above and take all the +history into account, it becomes increasingly difficult to argue for a +systematic use of Cstruct in our unikernels. In fact, the question of +Cstruct.t versus bytes/string remains completely open.

+

It's worth noting that the original reasons for Cstruct.t are no longer really +relevant if we consider how OCaml has evolved. It should also be noted that this +systematic approach to using Cstruct.t rather than bytes/string has cost us.

+

This is not to say that Cstruct.t is obsolete. The library is very good and +offers an API where manipulating bytes to extract information such as a TCP/IP +packet remains more pleasant than directly using bytes (even if, here too, +efforts have been made).

+

As far as ocaml-tar is concerned, what really counts is the possibility for +other projects to use this library without requiring Cstruct.t - thus +facilitating its adoption. In other words, given the advantages/disadvantages of +Cstruct.t, we felt it would be a good idea to remove this dependency.

+
+

1: It should be noted that the benchmark also concerns +compression. In this case, we use decompress, which uses bigarrays. So there's +some copying involved (from bytes to bigarrays)! But despite this copying, it +seems that the change is worthwhile.

+

2: It reminds me that we've been experimenting with +capabilities and using the type system to enforce certain characteristics. To +date, Cstruct_cap has not been used anywhere, which raises a real question +about the advantages/disadvantages in everyday use.

+

Functors

+

This is perhaps the other point of the Mirage ecosystem that is also the subject +of debate. Functors! Before we talk about functors, we need to understand their +relevance in the context of Mirage.

+

Mirage transforms an application into an operating system. What's the difference +between a "normal" application and a unikernel: the "subsystem" with which you +interact. In this case, a normal application will interact with the host system, +whereas a unikernel will have to interact with the Solo5 mini-system.

+

What Mirage is trying to offer is the ability for an application to transform +itself into either without changing a thing! Mirage's aim is to inject the +subsystem into your application. In this case:

+
    +
  • inject unix.cmxa when you want a Mirage application to become a simple +executable
    • +
  • inject ocaml-solo5 when you want to produce a unikernel
    • +
+

So we're not going to talk about the pros and cons of this approach here, but +consider this feature as one that requires us to use functors.

+

Indeed, what's the best way in OCaml to inject one implementation into another: +functors? There are definite advantages here too, but we're going to concentrate +on one in particular: the expressiveness of types at module level (which can be +used as arguments to our functors).

+

For example, did you know that OCaml has a dependent type system?

+
type 'a nat = Zero : zero nat | Succ : 'a nat -> 'a succ nat
+and zero = |
+and 'a succ = S
+
+module type T = sig type t val v : t nat end
+module type Rec = functor (T:T) -> T
+module type Nat = functor (S:Rec) -> functor (Z:T) -> T
+
+module Zero = functor (S:Rec) -> functor (Z:T) -> Z
+module Succ = functor (N:Nat) -> functor (S:Rec) -> functor (Z:T) -> S(N(S)(Z))
+module Add = functor (X:Nat) -> functor (Y:Nat) -> functor (S:Rec) -> functor (Z:T) -> X(S)(Y(S)(Z))
+
+module One = Succ(Zero)
+module Two_a = Add(One)(One)
+module Two_b = Succ(One)
+
+module Z : T with type t = zero = struct
+  type t = zero
+  let v = Zero
+end
+
+module S (T:T) : T with type t = T.t succ = struct
+  type t = T.t succ
+  let v = Succ T.v
+end
+
+module A = Two_a(S)(Z)
+module B = Two_b(S)(Z)
+
+type ('a, 'b) refl = Refl : ('a, 'a) refl
+
+let _ : (A.t, B.t) refl = Refl (* 1+1 == succ 1 *)
+
+

The code is ... magical, but it shows that two differently constructed modules +(Two_a & Two_b) ultimately produce the same type, and OCaml is able to prove +this equality. Above all, the example shows just how powerful functors can be. +But it also shows just how difficult functors can be to understand and use.

+

In fact, this is one of Mirage's biggest drawbacks: the overuse of functors +makes the code difficult to read and understand. It can be difficult to deduce +in your head the type that results from an application of functors, and the +constraints associated with it... (yes, I don't use merlin).

+

But back to our initial problem: injection! In truth, the functor is a +fly-killing sledgehammer in most cases. There are many other ways of injecting +what the system would be (and how to do a read or write) into an +implementation. The best example, as @nojb pointed out, is of +course ocaml-tls - this answer also shows a contrast between the +functor approach (with CoHTTP for example) and the "pure value-passing +interface" of ocaml-tls.

+

What's more, we've been trying to find other approaches for injecting the system +we want for several years now. We can already list several:

+
    +
  • ocaml-tls' "value-passing" approach, of course, but also decompress
    • +
  • of course, there's the passing of a record (a sort of +mini-module with fewer possibilities with types, but which does the job - a +poor man's functor, in short) which would have the functions to perform the +system's operations
    • +
  • mimic can be used to inject a module as an implementation of a +flow/stream according to a resolution mechanism (DNS, /etc/services, etc.) - +a little closer to the idea of runtime-resolved implicit implementations
    • +
  • there are, of course, the variants (but if we go back to 2010, this solution +wasn't so obvious) popularized by ptime/mtime, digestif & +dune
    • +
  • and finally, GADTs, which describe what the process should +do, then let the user implement the run function according to the system.
    • +
+

In short, based on this list and the various experiments we've carried out on a +number of projects, we've decided to remove the functors from ocaml-tar! The +crucial question now is: which method to choose?

+

The best answers

+

There's no real answer to that, and in truth it depends on what level of +abstraction you're at. In fact, you'd like to have a fairly simple method of +abstraction from the system at the start and at the lowest level, to end up +proposing a functor that does all the ceremony (the glue between your +implementation and the system) at the end - that's what ocaml-git +does, for example.

+

The abstraction you choose also depends on how the process is going to work. As +far as streams/protocols are concerned, the ocaml-tls/decompress approach +still seems the best. But when it comes to introspecting a file/block-device, it +may be preferable to use a GADT that will force the user to implement an +arbitrary memory access rather than consume a sequence of bytes. In short, at +this stage, experience speaks for itself and, just as we were wrong about +functors, we won't be advising you to use this or that solution.

+

But based on our experience of ocaml-tls & decompress with LZO (which +requires arbitrary access to the content) and the way Tar works, we decided to +use a "value-passing" approach (to describe when we need to read/write) and a +GADT to describe calculations such as:

+
    +
  • iterating over the files/folders contained in a Tar document
    • +
  • producing a Tar file according to a "dispenser" of inputs
    • +
+
val decode : decode_state -> string ->
+  decode_state *
+   * [ `Read of int
+     | `Skip of int
+     | `Header of Header.t ] option
+   * Header.Extended.t option
+(** [decode state] returns a new state and what the user should do next:
+    - [`Skip] skip bytes
+    - [`Read] read bytes
+    - [`Header hdr] do something according the last header extracted
+      (like stream-out the contents of a file). *)
+
+type ('a, 'err) t =
+  | Really_read : int -> (string, 'err) t
+  | Read : int -> (string, 'err) t
+  | Seek : int -> (unit, 'err) t
+  | Bind : ('a, 'err) t * ('a -> ('b, 'err) t) -> ('b, 'err) t
+  | Return : ('a, 'err) result -> ('a, 'err) t
+  | Write : string -> (unit, 'err) t
+
+

However, and this is where we come back to OCaml's limitations and where +functors could help us: higher kinded polymorphism!

+

Higher kinded Polymorphism

+

If we return to our functor example above, there's one element that may be of +interest: T with type t = T.t succ

+

In other words, add a constraint to a signature type. A constraint often seen +with Mirage (but deprecated now according to this issue) is the +type io and its constraint: type 'a io, with type 'a io = 'a Lwt.t.

+

So we had this type in Tar. The problem is that our GADT can't understand that +sometimes it will have to manipulate Lwt values, sometimes Async or +sometimes Eio (or Miou!). In other words: how do we compose our Bind with +the Bind of these three targets? The difficulty lies above all in history? +Supporting this library requires us to assume a certain compatibility with +applications over which we have no control. What's more, we need to maintain +support for all three libraries without imposing one.

+
+

A small disgression at this stage seems important to us, as we've been working +in this way for over 10 years. Of course, despite all the solutions mentioned +above, not depending on a system (and/or a scheduler) also allows us to ensure +the existence of libraries like Tar over more than a decade! The OCaml ecosystem +is changing, and choosing this or that library to facilitate the development of +an application has implications we might regret 10 years down the line (for +example... Cstruct.t!). So, it can be challenging to ensure compatibility with +all systems, but the result is libraries steeped in the experience and know-how +of many developers!

+
+

So, and this is why we talk about Higher Kinded Polymorphism, how do we abstract +the t from 'a t (to replace it with Lwt.t or even with a type such as +type 'a t = 'a)? This is where we're going to use the trick explained in +this paper. The trick is to consider a "new type" that will represent our +monad (lwt or async) and inject/project a value from this monad to something +understandable by our GADT: High : ('a, 't) io -> ('a, 't) t.

+
type ('a, 't) io
+
+type ('a, 'err, 't) t =
+  | Really_read : int -> (string, 'err, 't) t
+  | Read : int -> (string, 'err, 't) t
+  | Seek : int -> (unit, 'err, 't) t
+  | Bind : ('a, 'err, 't) t * ('a -> ('b, 'err, 't) t) -> ('b, 'err, 't) t
+  | Return : ('a, 'err) result -> ('a, 'err, 't) t
+  | Write : string -> (unit, 'err, 't) t
+  | High : ('a, 't) io -> ('a, 'err, 't) t
+
+

Next, we need to create this new type according to the chosen scheduler. Let's +take Lwt as an example:

+
module Make (X : sig type 'a t end) = struct
+  type t (* our new type *)
+  type 'a s = 'a X.t
+  
+  external inj : 'a s -> ('a, t) io = "%identity"
+  external prj : ('a, t) io -> 'a s = "%identity"
+end
+
+module L = Make(Lwt)
+
+let rec run
+  : type a err. (a, err, L.t) t -> (a, err) result Lwt.t
+  = function
+  | High v -> Ok (L.prj v)
+  | Return v -> Lwt.return v
+  | Bind (x, f) ->
+    run x >>= fun value -> run (f value)
+  | _ -> ...
+
+

So, as you can see, it's a real trick to avoid doing at home without a +companion. Indeed, the use of %identity corresponds to an Obj.magic! So even +if the io type is exposed (to let the user derive Tar for their own system), +this trick is not exposed for other packages, and we instead suggest helpers +such as:

+
val lwt : 'a Lwt.t -> ('a, 'err, lwt) t
+val miou : 'a -> ('a, 'err, miou) t
+
+

But this way, Tar can always be derived from another system, and the process for +extracting entries from a Tar file is the same for all systems!

+

Conclusion

+

This Tar release isn't as impressive as this article, but it does sum up all the +work we've been able to do over the last few months and years. We hope that our +work is appreciated and that this article, which sets out all the thoughts we've +had (and still have), helps you to better understand our work!

+ +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/atom.xml b/atom.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb596ed --- /dev/null +++ b/atom.xml @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ + + + https://blog.robur.coop/atom.xml + The Robur's blog + YOCaml + 2024-10-25T00:00:00Z + + The Robur Team + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/dnsvizor01.html + Meet DNSvizor: run your own DHCP and DNS MirageOS unikernel + 2024-10-25T00:00:00Z + + The NGI-funded DNSvizor provides core network services on your network; DNS resolution and DHCP. + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/arguments.html + Runtime arguments in MirageOS + 2024-10-22T00:00:00Z + The history of runtime arguments to a MirageOS unikernel + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/finances.html + How has robur financially been doing since 2018? + 2024-10-21T00:00:00Z + How we organise as a collective, and why we're doing that. + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/2024-08-21-OpenVPN-and-MirageVPN.html + MirageVPN and OpenVPN + 2024-08-21T00:00:00Z + Discoveries made implementing MirageVPN, a OpenVPN-compatible VPN library + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/tar-release.html + The new Tar release, a retrospective + 2024-08-15T00:00:00Z + A little retrospective to the new Tar release and changes + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/qubes-miragevpn.html + qubes-miragevpn, a MirageVPN client for QubesOS + 2024-06-24T00:00:00Z + A new OpenVPN client for QubesOS + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-server.html + MirageVPN server + 2024-06-17T00:00:00Z + Announcement of our MirageVPN server. + + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-performance.html + Speeding up MirageVPN and use it in the wild + 2024-04-16T00:00:00Z + Performance engineering of MirageVPN, speeding it up by a factor of 25. + + + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/gptar.html + GPTar + 2024-02-21T00:00:00Z + Hybrid GUID partition table and tar archive + + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/speeding-ec-string.html + Speeding elliptic curve cryptography + 2024-02-13T00:00:00Z + + How we improved the performance of elliptic curves by only modifying the underlying byte array + + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/lwt_pause.html + Cooperation and Lwt.pause + 2024-02-11T00:00:00Z + A disgression about Lwt and Miou + + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/2024-02-03-python-str-repr.html + Python's `str.__repr__()` + 2024-02-03T00:00:00Z + Reimplementing Python string escaping in OCaml + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-ncp.html + MirageVPN updated (AEAD, NCP) + 2023-11-20T00:00:00Z + How we resurrected MirageVPN from its bitrot state + + + + + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn.html + MirageVPN & tls-crypt-v2 + 2023-11-14T00:00:00Z + How we implementated tls-crypt-v2 for miragevpn + + + + + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/css/.style.css.swp b/css/.style.css.swp new file mode 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diff --git a/feed.xml b/feed.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c508c2d --- /dev/null +++ b/feed.xml @@ -0,0 +1,118 @@ + + + + The Robur's blog + https://blog.robur.coop + + + Fri, 25 Oct 2024 00:00:00 GMT + https://www.rssboard.org/rss-specification + YOCaml + + Meet DNSvizor: run your own DHCP and DNS MirageOS unikernel + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/dnsvizor01.html + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/dnsvizor01.html + Fri, 25 Oct 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + Runtime arguments in MirageOS + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/arguments.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/arguments.html + Tue, 22 Oct 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + How has robur financially been doing since 2018? + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/finances.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/finances.html + Mon, 21 Oct 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + MirageVPN and OpenVPN + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/2024-08-21-OpenVPN-and-MirageVPN.html + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/2024-08-21-OpenVPN-and-MirageVPN.html + Wed, 21 Aug 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + The new Tar release, a retrospective + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/tar-release.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/tar-release.html + Thu, 15 Aug 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + qubes-miragevpn, a MirageVPN client for QubesOS + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/qubes-miragevpn.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/qubes-miragevpn.html + Mon, 24 Jun 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + MirageVPN server + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-server.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-server.html + Mon, 17 Jun 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + Speeding up MirageVPN and use it in the wild + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-performance.html + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-performance.html + Tue, 16 Apr 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + GPTar + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/gptar.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/gptar.html + Wed, 21 Feb 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + Speeding elliptic curve cryptography + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/speeding-ec-string.html + + + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/speeding-ec-string.html + Tue, 13 Feb 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + Cooperation and Lwt.pause + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/lwt_pause.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/lwt_pause.html + Sun, 11 Feb 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + Python's `str.__repr__()` + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/2024-02-03-python-str-repr.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/2024-02-03-python-str-repr.html + Sat, 03 Feb 2024 00:00:00 GMT + + + MirageVPN updated (AEAD, NCP) + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-ncp.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn-ncp.html + Mon, 20 Nov 2023 00:00:00 GMT + + + MirageVPN & tls-crypt-v2 + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn.html + + https://blog.robur.coop/articles/miragevpn.html + Tue, 14 Nov 2023 00:00:00 GMT + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/images/finances.png 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1.26%) + + + +sha256_do_chunk (5,417,250 samples, 0.02%) + + + +__GI___libc_malloc (15,242,690 samples, 0.05%) + + + +hrtimer_interrupt (4,451,710 samples, 0.01%) + + + +Mirage_crypto.Uncommon.xor_639 (26,429,664 samples, 0.08%) + + + +_mc_sha256_update (18,298,601 samples, 0.06%) + + + +Mirage_crypto.Hash.fun_1742 (7,596,443 samples, 0.02%) + + + +mc_xor_into (3,048,204 samples, 0.01%) + + + +_int_free (34,426,413 samples, 0.11%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.to_be_cstruct_1020 (5,609,240 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.g_1075 (175,984,199 samples, 0.55%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.select_709 (4,280,588,392 samples, 13.37%) +Mirage_crypto_ec.sel.. + + +caml_major_collection_slice (3,114,403 samples, 0.01%) + + + +caml_gc_dispatch (181,970,605 samples, 0.57%) + + + +tick_sched_timer (3,119,205 samples, 0.01%) + + + +caml_major_collection_slice (3,814,396 samples, 0.01%) + + + +tcache_put (21,491,073 samples, 0.07%) + + + +caml_c_call (4,379,729 samples, 0.01%) + + + 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0.52%) + + + +fiat_p256_square (46,111,144 samples, 0.16%) + + + +scheduler_tick (2,562,464 samples, 0.01%) + + + +sha256_do_chunk (14,853,921 samples, 0.05%) + + + +__memset_avx2_unaligned_erms (49,626,763 samples, 0.17%) + + + +mc_p256_point_double (3,807,892 samples, 0.01%) + + + +caml_empty_minor_heap (7,652,668 samples, 0.03%) + + + +Mirage_crypto.Hash.fun_1737 (32,266,631 samples, 0.11%) + + + +fiat_p256_addcarryx_u64 (1,766,848,642 samples, 6.16%) +fiat_p25.. + + +Dune.exe.Speed.go_236 (2,529,052,833 samples, 8.82%) +Dune.exe.Spe.. + + +mc_sha256_update (30,356,717 samples, 0.11%) + + + +mc_p384_point_double (8,220,000 samples, 0.03%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.rev_string_292 (2,537,558 samples, 0.01%) + + + +Mirage_crypto.Hash.fun_1807 (15,494,806 samples, 0.05%) + + + +Stdlib.Bigarray.create_379 (4,467,043 samples, 0.02%) + + + +memset@plt (8,924,378 samples, 0.03%) + + + +Mirage_crypto.Hash.fun_1807 (16,564,892 samples, 0.06%) + + + +caml_alloc_string (21,578,112 samples, 0.08%) 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(29,244,042 samples, 0.10%) + + + +mc_p256_select (3,177,746 samples, 0.01%) + + + +sha256_do_chunk (30,331,172 samples, 0.11%) + + + +fiat_p256_mulx_u64 (695,474,823 samples, 2.42%) +fi.. + + +fiat_p256_mul (5,650,648,126 samples, 19.70%) +fiat_p256_mul + + +tick_sched_handle (2,562,464 samples, 0.01%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.to_montgomery_1106 (3,815,474 samples, 0.01%) + + + +caml_ba_create (3,109,846 samples, 0.01%) + + + +fiat_p384_mul (6,940,216 samples, 0.02%) + + + +caml_alloc_string (171,098,132 samples, 0.60%) + + + +fiat_p256_addcarryx_u64 (159,606,047 samples, 0.56%) + + + +memset@plt (10,845,965 samples, 0.04%) + + + +caml_ba_alloc (4,436,806 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.sign_1287 (3,184,538 samples, 0.01%) + + + +__gmpz_probab_prime_p (7,621,886 samples, 0.03%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_rng.Hmac_drbg.reseed_174 (176,115,063 samples, 0.61%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.139 (5,635,774 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Cstruct.create_919 (5,690,265 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Cstruct.create_unsafe_790 (3,165,453 samples, 0.01%) + + + +fiat_p256_mulx_u64 (1,236,480,028 samples, 4.31%) +fiat_.. + + +ror32 (6,928,002 samples, 0.02%) + + + +update_process_times (2,562,464 samples, 0.01%) + + + +memset@plt (18,327,775 samples, 0.06%) + + + +fiat_p256_cmovznz_u64 (74,934,150 samples, 0.26%) + + + +Mirage_crypto.Hash.fun_1809 (8,924,929 samples, 0.03%) + + + +fiat_p384_addcarryx_u64 (4,861,350 samples, 0.02%) + + + +point_add (50,229,941 samples, 0.18%) + + + +mc_p256_select (276,026,202 samples, 0.96%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.bit_at_467 (22,230,480 samples, 0.08%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.fun_3718 (10,821,203,286 samples, 37.73%) +Mirage_crypto_ec.fun_3718 + + +fiat_np256_addcarryx_u64 (394,479,447 samples, 1.38%) + + + +fiat_p256_cmovznz_u64 (7,636,629 samples, 0.03%) + + + +__gmpn_tdiv_qr (5,715,069 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_pk.Dh.entry (3,252,159 samples, 0.01%) + + + +fiat_p256_sub (57,766,905 samples, 0.20%) + + + +caml_ba_alloc (2,552,660 samples, 0.01%) + + + +fiat_p256_subborrowx_u64 (689,908,622 samples, 2.41%) +fi.. + + +__gmpz_probab_prime_p (21,658,520 samples, 0.08%) + + + +caml_empty_minor_heap (2,550,845 samples, 0.01%) + + + +mc_sha256_update (16,564,892 samples, 0.06%) + + + +mc_p256_select (6,375,219 samples, 0.02%) + + + +fiat_p256_cmovznz_u64 (90,664,649 samples, 0.32%) + + + +dl_main (6,084,015 samples, 0.02%) + + + +mark_slice (3,172,197 samples, 0.01%) + + + +caml_gc_dispatch (2,562,227 samples, 0.01%) + + + +Dune.exe.Speed.fun_2371 (24,494,411,698 samples, 85.40%) +Dune.exe.Speed.fun_2371 + + +Mirage_crypto.Hash.fun_1807 (7,003,862 samples, 0.02%) + + + +fiat_p256_subborrowx_u64 (396,142,632 samples, 1.38%) + + + +__gmpn_dcpi1_div_qr (12,127,789 samples, 0.04%) + + + +[anon] (458,504,802 samples, 1.60%) + + + +_mc_sha256_update (16,564,892 samples, 0.06%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.fun_3714 (1,071,489,326 samples, 3.74%) +Mira.. + + +fiat_p256_square (2,458,048 samples, 0.01%) + + + +caml_call_gc (3,075,953 samples, 0.01%) + + + +__gmpn_fib2m (3,830,540 samples, 0.01%) + + + +Mirage_crypto.Hash.fun_1809 (15,919,767 samples, 0.06%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.fun_3773 (10,843,576 samples, 0.04%) + + + +caml_empty_minor_heap (5,063,764 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.fun_4028 (12,061,825 samples, 0.04%) + + + +caml_fill_bytes (17,106,951 samples, 0.06%) + + + +elf_machine_rela_relative (3,760,172 samples, 0.01%) + + + +asm_sysvec_apic_timer_interrupt (5,110,529 samples, 0.02%) + + + +__gmpz_millerrabin (6,993,012 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Stdlib.Bytes.make_93 (25,538,697 samples, 0.09%) + + + +sha256_do_chunk (29,138,276 samples, 0.10%) + + + +thread_group_cputime (8,271,771 samples, 0.03%) + + + +_start (27,144,231,353 samples, 94.64%) +_start + + +mc_p224_point_double (3,728,536 samples, 0.01%) + + + +__sysvec_apic_timer_interrupt (4,472,202 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Cstruct.create_unsafe_790 (3,193,502 samples, 0.01%) + + + +_mc_sha256_update (29,138,276 samples, 0.10%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.do_sign_1267 (3,126,080 samples, 0.01%) + + + +Mirage_crypto_ec.fun_3759 (3,842,318 samples, 0.01%) + + + +tick_sched_timer (2,561,706 samples, 0.01%) + + + +mc_sha256_update (8,252,353 samples, 0.03%) + + + +Dune.exe.Speed.entry (27,130,268,667 samples, 94.59%) +Dune.exe.Speed.entry + + +__gmpz_tdiv_r (5,087,961 samples, 0.02%) + + + +caml_c_call (22,208,356 samples, 0.08%) + + + +sha256_do_chunk (15,288,439 samples, 0.05%) + + + +asm_sysvec_apic_timer_interrupt (4,483,294 samples, 0.02%) + + + +Cstruct.create_unsafe_790 (3,180,757 samples, 0.01%) + + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/index.html b/index.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa0ae79 --- /dev/null +++ b/index.html @@ -0,0 +1,218 @@ + + + + + + + + Robur's blogIndex + + + + + + + + +
+

blog.robur.coop

+
+ The Robur cooperative blog. +
+
+
RSS

The Robur blog.

+ +

Essays and ramblings

+ +
  1. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-10-25 + Meet DNSvizor: run your own DHCP and DNS MirageOS unikernel
    +

    The NGI-funded DNSvizor provides core network services on your network; DNS resolution and DHCP.

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  2. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-10-22 + Runtime arguments in MirageOS
    +

    The history of runtime arguments to a MirageOS unikernel

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  3. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-10-21 + How has robur financially been doing since 2018?
    +

    How we organise as a collective, and why we're doing that.

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  4. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-08-21 + MirageVPN and OpenVPN
    +

    Discoveries made implementing MirageVPN, a OpenVPN-compatible VPN library

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  5. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-08-15 + The new Tar release, a retrospective
    +

    A little retrospective to the new Tar release and changes

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  6. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-06-24 + qubes-miragevpn, a MirageVPN client for QubesOS
    +

    A new OpenVPN client for QubesOS

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  7. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-06-17 + MirageVPN server
    +

    Announcement of our MirageVPN server.

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  8. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-04-16 + Speeding up MirageVPN and use it in the wild
    +

    Performance engineering of MirageVPN, speeding it up by a factor of 25.

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  9. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-02-21 + GPTar
    +

    Hybrid GUID partition table and tar archive

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  10. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-02-13 + Speeding elliptic curve cryptography
    +

    How we improved the performance of elliptic curves by only modifying the underlying byte array

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  11. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-02-11 + Cooperation and Lwt.pause
    +

    A disgression about Lwt and Miou

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  12. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2024-02-03 + Python's `str.__repr__()`
    +

    Reimplementing Python string escaping in OCaml

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  13. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2023-11-20 + MirageVPN updated (AEAD, NCP)
    +

    How we resurrected MirageVPN from its bitrot state

    +
    + +
    +
    +
  14. +
    + + +
    +
    + 2023-11-14 + MirageVPN & tls-crypt-v2
    +

    How we implementated tls-crypt-v2 for miragevpn

    +
    + +
    +
    +
+ +
+ + + + diff --git a/js/hl.js b/js/hl.js new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c8c551 --- /dev/null +++ b/js/hl.js @@ -0,0 +1,2191 @@ +/*! + Highlight.js v11.5.1 (git: b8f233c8e2) + (c) 2006-2022 Ivan Sagalaev and other contributors + License: BSD-3-Clause + */ +var hljs=function(){"use strict";var e={exports:{}};function t(e){ +return e instanceof Map?e.clear=e.delete=e.set=()=>{ +throw Error("map is read-only")}:e instanceof Set&&(e.add=e.clear=e.delete=()=>{ +throw Error("set is read-only") +}),Object.freeze(e),Object.getOwnPropertyNames(e).forEach((n=>{var i=e[n] +;"object"!=typeof i||Object.isFrozen(i)||t(i)})),e} +e.exports=t,e.exports.default=t;var n=e.exports;class i{constructor(e){ +void 0===e.data&&(e.data={}),this.data=e.data,this.isMatchIgnored=!1} +ignoreMatch(){this.isMatchIgnored=!0}}function r(e){ +return e.replace(/&/g,"&").replace(//g,">").replace(/"/g,""").replace(/'/g,"'") +}function s(e,...t){const n=Object.create(null);for(const t in e)n[t]=e[t] +;return 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+

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+ tar +

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